Probiotics are live micro-organisms that confer a health benefit to the host by providing both a nutritional benefit and protection against pathogens. This is a review of the present state of knowledge concerning probiotics, with emphasis on the criteria used for selection and clinical evidence of their beneficial effects.
Adlerberth I., Ahrné S., Johansson ML, Molin G., Hanson LA, Wold AE ( 1996) A mannose-specific adherence mechanism in Lactobacillus plantarum conferring binding to the human colonic cell line HT-29. Applied and Environmental Microbiology62: 2244-51.
2.
Bassetti S., Frei R., Zimmerli W. (1998) Fungemia with Saccharomyces cerevisiae after treatment with Saccharomyces boulardii. American Journal of Medicine105: 71-2.
3.
Benno Y., He F., Hosada M., Hashimoto H., Kojima T., Yamazaki K., Iino H., Mykkanen H., Salminen S. (1996) Effects of Lactobacillus GG yoghurt on human intestinal micro-ecology in Japanese subjects. Nutrition Today31: 9-11S.
4.
Bruce AW, Reid G. ( 1988) Intravaginal instillation of lactobacilli for prevention of recurrent urinary tract infection. Canadian Journal of Microbiology34: 339-43.
5.
Cadieux P., Burton J., Gardiner G., Braunstein I., Bruce AW, Kang CY, Reid G. ( 2002) Lactobacillus strains and vaginal ecology. Journal of the American Medical Association287: 1940-1.
6.
Castagliuolo I., Riegler MF, Valenick L., LaMont JT, Pothoulakis C. (1999) Saccharomyces boulardii protease inhibits the effects of Clostridium difficile toxins A and B in human colonic mucosa. Infection andImmunity67: 302-7.
7.
Chang TL, Chang CH, Simpson DA, Xu Q., Martin PK, Lagenaur LA, Schoolnik GK, Ho DD, Hillier SL, Holodniy M., Lewicki JA, Lee PP ( 2003) Inhibition of HIV infectivity by a natural human isolate of Lactobacillus jensenii engineered to express functional two-domain CD4 . Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the USA100: 11672-7.
8.
Chancey CJ, Khanna KV, Seegers Jfml, Zhang GW, Hildreth J., Langan A., Markham RB (2006) Lactobacilli-expressed single-chain variable fragment (scFv) specific for intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) blocks cell-associated HIV-1 transmission across a cervical epithelial monolayer. Journal of Immunology176: 5627-36.
9.
Conway PL, Gorbach SL, Goldin BR (1987) Survival of lactic acid bacteria in the human stomach and adhesion to intestinal cells. Journal of DairyScience70: 1-12.
10.
De Groote MA, Frank DN, Dowell E., Glode MP, Pace NR ( 2005) Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG bacteremia associated with probiotic use in a child with short gut syndrome. Pediatric Infectious Disease Journal24: 278-280.
11.
Drouault S., Juste C., Marteau P., Renault P., Corthier G. (2002) Oral treatment with Lactococcus lactis expressing Staphylococcus hyicus lipase enhances lipid digestion in pigs with induced pancreatic insufficiency. Applied and Environmental Microbiology68: 3166-8.
12.
Fabia R., Ar'Rajab A., Johansson ML, Willen R., Andersson R., Molin G., Bengmark S. (1993) The effect of exogenous administration of Lactobacillus reuteri R2LC and oat fiber on acetic acid-induced colitis in the rat. Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology28: 155-62.
13.
Falk PG, Hooper LV, Midtvedt T., Gordon JI (1998) Creating and maintaining the gastrointestinal ecosystem: what we know and need to know from gnotobiology. Microbiology and MolecularBiology Reviews62: 1157-70.
14.
Gardiner GE, Heinemann C., Baroja ML, Bruce AW, Beuerman D., Madrenas J., Reid G. ( 2002) Oral administration of the probiotic combination Lactobacillus rhamnosus GR-1 and L. fermentum RC-14 for human intestinal applications. International Dairy Journal12: 191-6.
15.
Gibson GR, Roberfroid MB (1995) Dietary modulation of the human colonic microbiota: introducing the concept of prebiotics. Journal ofNutrition125: 1401-12.
16.
Gilliland SE, Speck ML, Morgan CG (1975) Detection of L. acidophilus in feces of humans, pigs, and chickens. Applied Microbiology30: 541-5.
17.
Goldin BR, Gorbach SL (1984) The effect of oral administration of Lactobacillus and antibiotics on intestinal bacterial activity and chemical induction of large bowel tumors. Developments in Industrial Microbiology25: 139-50.
18.
Gorbach SL (1996) The discovery of Lactobacillus GG. Nutrition Today31: 2-4S.
19.
Hooper LV, Midtvedt T., Gordon JI (2002) How host-microbial interactions shape the nutrient environment of the mammalian intestine. Annual Review ofNutrition22: 283-307.
20.
Hooper LV, Wong MH, Thelin A., Hansson L., Falk PG, Gordon JI (2001) Molecular analysis of commensal host-microbial relationships in the intestine. Science291: 881-4.
21.
Kato I., Endo-Tanaka K., Yokokura T. (1998) Suppressive effects of the oral administration of Lactobacillus casei on type II collagen-induced arthritis in DBA/1 mice . Life Sciences63: 635-44.
22.
Klaenhammer TR, Kullen MJ (1999) Selection and design of probiotics. International Journal of Food Microbiology50: 45-57.
23.
Klarin B., Johansson ML, Molin G., Larsson A., Jeppsson B. (2005) Adhesion of the probiotic bacterium Lactobacillus plantarum 299v onto the gut mucosa in critically ill patients: a randomised open trial. Critical Care9: R285-R293.
24.
Kleessen B., Sykura B., Zunft HJ, Blaut M. (1997) Effects of inulin and lactose on fecal microflora, microbial activity, and bowel habit in elderly constipated persons. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition65: 1397-402.
25.
Koebnick C., Wagner I., Leitzmann P., Stern U., Zunft HJ (2003) Probiotic beverage containing Lactobacillus casei Shirota improves gastrointestinal symptoms in patients with chronic constipation. Canadian Journal ofGastroenterology17: 655-9.
26.
Kunz AN, Noel JM, Fairchok MP (2004) Two cases of Lactobacillus bacteremia during probiotic treatment of short gut syndrome. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition38: 457-8.
27.
Lu L., Walker WA (2001) Pathologic and physiologic interactions of bacteria with the gastrointestinal epithelium. American Journal of Clinical Nutrition73: 1124S-30S.
28.
Martin HL, Richardson BA, Nyange PM, Lavreys L., Hillier SL, Chohan B., Mandaliya K., Ndinya-Achola JO, Bwayo J., Kreiss J. (1999) Vaginal lactobacilli, microbial flora, and risk of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 and sexually transmitted disease acquisition . Journal of Infectious Diseases180: 1863-8.
29.
Matsuzaki T., Yamazaki R., Hashimoto S., Yokokura T. (1998) The effect of oral feeding of Lactobacillus casei strain Shirota on immunoglobulin E production in mice. Journal of DairyScience81: 48-53.
30.
Matsuzaki T., Nagata Y., Kado S., Uchida K., Kato I., Hashimoto S., Yokokura T. (1997) Prevention of onset in an insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus model, NOD mice, by oral feeding of Lactobacillus casei. Acta Pathologica, Microbiologica et Immunologica Scandinavica105: 643-9. Matsuzaki T., Hashimoto S., Yokokura T. (1996) Effects on antitumor activity and cytokine production in the thoracic cavity by intrapleural administration of Lactobacillus casei in tumor-bearing mice. Medical Microbiology and Immunology185: 157-61.
31.
Matsuzaki T., Shimizu Y., Yokokura T. (1990) Augmentation of antimetastatic effect on Lewis lung carcinoma (3LL) in C57BL/6 mice by priming with Lactobacillus casei. Medical Microbiology and Immunology179: 161-8.
32.
Matsuzaki T., Yokokura T., Mutai M. (1988) Antitumor effect of intrapleural administration of Lactobacillus casei in mice. Cancer Immunology, Immunotherapy26: 209-14.
33.
McCullough MJ, Clemons KV, McCusker JH, Stevens DA (1998) Species identification and virulence attributes of Saccharomyces boulardii (nom. inval.). Journal of Clinical Microbiology36: 2613-7.
34.
McFarland LV, Surawicz CM, Greenberg RN, Elmer GW, Moyer KA, Melcher SA, Bowen KE, Cox JL ( 1995) Prevention of beta-lactam-associated diarrhea by Saccharomyces boulardii compared with placebo. American Journal ofGastroenterology90: 439-48.
35.
Mikelsaar M., Mändar R. (1993) Development of individual lactic acid microflora in the human microbial ecosystem: In: Salminen S, von Wright A. (Eds.). Lactic acid bacteria. Marcel Dekker: New York: 237-94.
36.
Montes RG, Bayless TM, Saavedra JM, Perman JA (1995) Effect of milks inoculated with Lactobacillus acidophilus or a yogurt starter culture in lactose-maldigesting children. Journal of DairyScience78: 1657-64.
37.
Pereg D., Kimhi O., Tirosh A., Orr N., Kayouf R., Lishner M. (2005) The effect of fermented yogurt on the prevention of diarrhea in a healthy adult population. American Journal of Infection Control33: 122-5.
38.
Pochapin M. (2000) The effect of probiotics on Clostridium difficile diarrhea. American Journal ofGastroenterology95: S11-S13.
39.
Pouwels PH, Leer RJ, Shaw M., Heijne den Bak-Glashouwer MJ, Tielen FD, Smit E., Martinez B., Jore J., Conway PL (1998) Lactic acid bacteria as antigen delivery vehicles for oral immunization purposes. International Journal of Food Microbiology41: 155-67.
40.
Reid G., Sanders ME, Gaskins HR, Gibson GR, Mercenier A., Rastall RA, Roberfroid MB, Rowland I., Cherbut C., Klaenhammer TR (2003) New scientific paradigms for probiotics and prebiotics. Journal of ClinicalGastroenterology37: 105-18.
41.
Reid G., Beuerman D., Heinemann C., Bruce AW (2001) Probiotic Lactobacillus dose required to restore and maintain a normal vaginal flora. FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology32: 37-41.
42.
Reid G., Bruce AW, Fraser N., Heinemann C., Owen J., Henning B. (2000) Oral probiotics can resolve urogenital infections . FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology30: 49-52.
43.
Schley PD, Field CJ (2002) The immune-enhancing effects of dietary fibres and prebiotics. British Journal of Nutrition87: S221-30.
44.
Shornikova AV, Casas IA, Isolauri E., Mykkanen H., Vesikari T. (1997) Lactobacillus reuteri as a therapeutic agent in acute diarrhea in young children. Journal of Pediatric Gastroenterology and Nutrition24: 399-404.
45.
Simenhoff ML, Dunn SR, Zollner GP, Fitzpatrick Med, Emery SM, Sandine WE, Ayres JW (1996) Biomodulation of the toxic and nutritional effects of small bowel bacterial overgrowth in end-stage kidney disease using freeze-dried Lactobacillus acidophilus. Mineral and Electrolyte Metabolism22: 92-6.
46.
Steidler L., Hans W., Schotte L., Neirynck S., Obermeier F., Falk W., Fiers W., Remaut E. (2000) Treatment of murine colitis by Lactococcus lactis secreting interleukin-10. Science289: 1352-5.
47.
Surawicz CM, Elmer G., Speelman P., Lynne V., McFarland LV, Chinn J. (1989) Prevention of antibiotic-associated diarrhea by Saccharomyces boulardii: a prospective study. Gastroenterology9: 981-8.
48.
Thomas MR, Litin SC, Osmon DR, Corr AP, Weaver AL, Lohse CM (2001) Lack of effect of Lactobacillus GG on antibiotic-associated diarrhea: a randomized, placebo-controlled trial. Mayo Clinic Proceedings76: 883-9.
49.
Walker R., Buckley M. (2006) Probiotic microbes: the scientific basis. Proceedings of a colloquium held by the American Academy of Microbiology : Baltimore.
50.
Wullt M., Johansson Hagslätt, M-L.,Odenholt I. (2003) Lactobacillus plantarum 299v for the treatment of recurrent Clostridium difficile-associated diarrhoea: a double-blind, placebo-controlled trial. Scandinavian Journal of Infectious Diseases35: 365-7.
51.
Zhou J. ( 2003) Microarrays for bacterial detection and microbial community analysis. Current Opinion in Microbiology6: 288-94.
