Classic pluralist theorists, based on Enlightenment ideals of democracy, equality, and individual rights, posit that interest groups engage in political pressure, bargaining, lobbying, and mobilization of bias, and no single group politically dominates. From 1619 to the end of American civil rights in the 1960s, the historical agenda of segments of a dominant white caste has been a stratified racial hierarchy. The effort to reverse the progress of civil rights and advance new forms of a racial hierarchy since 1970 has included countering voting rights, police violence, mass incarceration, housing, education, and economic discrimination, and laws prohibiting the teaching of accurate scholarly conclusions about US institutional racism. Scholarly endeavors in public policy process theory need to incorporate as a significant policy driver, as described in Critical Race Theory, how stratified and non-pluralistic American racialized practices operate and dominate in public policy processes.
American Association of Biological Anthropologists (2023) AABA statement on race & racism.
2.
American Experience (2023) Reconstruction: the second civil war|Article: southern violence during reconstruction.
3.
AndersonE (2013) Segregation and social inequality. The Imperative of Integration. Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press.
4.
AndersonEAustinDWHollowayCL, et al. (2012) The legacy of racial caste: an exploratory ethnography. The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science642: 25–42.
5.
BachrachPBaratzM (1963) Decisions and non-decisions. American Political Science Review57: 632–642.
6.
BakerK (2017) The Gospel According to the Klan: The KKK’s Appeal to Protestant America 1915-1930. Lawrence, Kansas: University Press of Kansas.
7.
BalfourL (2003) Unreconstructed democracy: W. E. B. Du Bois and the case for reparations. American Political Science Review97(1): 33–44.
8.
BarkerLJ (1994) Limits of political strategy: a systemic view of the African American experience. American Political Science Review88(1): 1–13.
9.
BaumgartnerFJonesB (2009) Agendas and Instability in American Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
10.
BaumgartnerFJonesBMortensenP (2024) Punctuated equlibrium theory: explaining stability and change in public policymaking. In: WeibleC (ed) Theories of the Policy Process. 5 ed.New York and London: Routledge.
11.
BenteleKGO'BrienEE (2013) Jim Crow 2.0? Why states consider and adopt restrictive voter access policies. Perspectives on Politics11(4): 1088–1116.
12.
BentleyA (1908) The Process of Govenment: A Study of Social Pressures. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
13.
BerremanG (1960) Caste in India and the United States. American Journal of Sociology66(2): 120–127.
14.
BlackmonDA (2009) Slavery by Another Name: The Re-Enslavement of Black Americans from the Civil War to World War II. New York: Anchor.
15.
BoboLDFoxC (2003) Race, racism, and discrimination: bridging problems, methods, and theory in social psychological research. Social Psychology Quarterly66(4): 319–332.
16.
BolesJ (1984) Black Southerners, 1619–1869. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky.
17.
BrendesePJ (2014) Black noise in white time: segregated temporality and mass incarceration. In: ColesRReinhardtMShulmanG (eds) Radical Future Pasts. Lexington, Kentucky: University Press of Kentucky.
18.
BunnC (2022) Report: Black People Are Still Killed by Police at a Higher Rate Than Other Groups.
19.
BuschA (2021) Jim Crow 2.0' is imaginary – and divisive. Real Clear Politics.
20.
CochranL (2021) The 1619 Landing — Virginia's FIRST Africans Report & FAQs.
21.
CohenMN (1999) The Innocent Scapegoat: Human Biological Variation and “Race”. Culture of Intolerance. New Haven: Yale University Press.
22.
ConnollyW (2005) Pluralism. Durham, North Carolina: Duke University Press.
23.
Constitutional Rights Foundation (2023) Slavery in the American South.
24.
CoxOC (1948) Caste, Class, and Race: A Study in Social Dynamics. New York: Doubleday.
25.
CrenshawKW (2019) Unmasking colorblindness in the formation of critical race theory. In: CrenshawKWLukeCHHoSangDM, et al. (eds) Seeing Race Again: Countering Colorblindness Across the Disciplines. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
26.
CroweKLLewisT (2021) The 1921 Tulsa massacre: what happened to Black Wall Street. Humanities42(1): 24-29, 54-55.
27.
DahlR (1961) Who Governs? Democracy and Power in an American City. New Haven: Yale University Press.
28.
DahlR (1982) Dilemmas of Pluralist Democracy. New Haven: Yale University Press.
29.
DavisTJ (2021) Who gets to say who's who? Plessy's insidious legacy. RSF: The Russell Sage Foundation Journal of the Social Sciences7(1): 32–49.
30.
DeAngelisRT (2021) Systemic racism in police killings: new evidence from the mapping police violence database, 2013–2021. Race and Justice.
31.
DelgadoRStefancicJ (2017) Critical Race Theory: An Introduction. New York City: New York University Press.
32.
DirlikA (2008) Race talk, race, and contemporary racism. PMLA123(5): 1363–1379.
33.
DupreL (2004) The Enlightenment and the Intellectual Foundations of Modern Culture. New Haven: Yale University Press.
Equal Justice Initiative (2017) Lynching in America: Confronting the Legacy of Racial Terror. Third Edition. Montgomery, Alabama: Equal Justice Initiative.
36.
FlippenC (2013) Relative deprivation and internal migration in the United States: a comparison of Black and White men. American Journal of Sociology118(5): 1161–1198.
37.
FredricksonGM (2016) The rise of modern racism(s): white supremacy and antisemitism in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries book. Racism. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton University Press.
38.
FullerCJ (2011) Caste, race, and hierarchy in the American South. Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute17(3): 604–621.
39.
GBD 2019 Police Violence US Subnational Collaborators (2021) Fatal police violence by race and state in the USA, 1980–2019: a network meta-regression. The Lancet398(10307): 1239–1255.
40.
GilensMPageBI (2014) Testing theories of American politics: elites, interest groups, and average citizens. Perspectives on Politics12(13): 564–581.
41.
GivelM (2024) Racial caste and post-racial caste impact on American society and democracy from 1619 to 2023. In: Rajendra BaikadySMSPrzeperskiJNadesanV, et al. (eds) The Palgrave Handbook of Global Social Problems. Cham: Palgrave Macmillan, 1–21.
42.
Gordon-ReedA (2018) America’s original sin: slavery and the legacy of white supremacy. Foreign Affairs.
43.
GravesJLGoodmanAH (2022) How Did Racism Become Biological? Racism, Not Race. New York, New York: Columbia University Press.
44.
Hannah-JonesNElliottMHughesJ, et al. (2019) The 1619 project. New York Times Magazine, August 18.
45.
HowlettMRameshMPerlA (2020) Studying Public Policy: Policy Cycles and Policy Subsystems. Toronto, Canada: Oxford University Press.
46.
Jenkins-SmithHNohrstedtDWeibleC, et al. (2017) The advocacy coalition framework: an overview of a research program. In: WeibleCSabatierP (eds) Theories of the Policy Process. 4 ed.New York and London: Routledge.
47.
KharemH (2006) White Supremacy's Politics of Culture and Exclusion, 49–73.
48.
KingBAEricksonL (2016) Disenfranchising the enfranchised: exploring the relationship between felony disenfranchisement and African American voter turnout. Journal of Black Studies47(8): 799–821.
49.
KuhnCMixonG (2022) Atlanta race massacre of 1906. New Georgia Encyclopedia.
50.
LawsonM (1977) Omaha, a city in ferment: summer of 1919. Nebraska History58(3): 395–416.
51.
LoewenJ (2006) Sundown Towns: A Hidden Dimension of American Racism New York. London, Toronto, Sydney: Simon & Schuster.
52.
LowiT (1979) The End of Liberalism: The Second Republic of the United States. New York: W. W. Norton & Company.
53.
MacMullanT (2022) Bacon’s Rebellion and the advent of whiteness. Habits of Whiteness. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press.
54.
ManleyJ (1983) Neo-pluralism: a class analysis of pluralism I and pluralism II. American Political Science Review77(2): 368–383.
55.
McCartneyM (2023) Virginia’s first Africans. Encyclopedia Virginia.
McLaughlinM (2002) Reconsidering the East St Louis race riot of 1917. International Review of Social History47(2): 187–212.
58.
NAACP (2023) History of lynching in America.
59.
National Archives (2021) The great migration (1910-1970).
60.
National Human Genome Research Institute (2023) What are eugenics and scientific racism?National Human Genome Research Institute.
61.
National Museum of African American History & Culture (2023) Mourning the death of Martin Luther King Jr.
62.
NellisA (2021) The Color of Justice: Racial and Ethnic Disparity in State Prisons. The Sentencing Project.
63.
NohrstedtDIngoldKWeibleC, et al. (2024) The advocacy coalition framework: progress and emerging areas. In: WeibleC (ed) Theories of the Policy Process. 5 ed.New York and London: Routledge.
64.
O’ConnellHABratterJLCasarezRS (2020) One drop on the move: historical legal context, racial classification, and migration. Ethnic and Racial Studies45(5): 809–828.
65.
PascoeP (1996) Miscegenation law, court cases, and ideologies of “race” in twentieth-century America. The Journal of American History83(1): 44–69.
66.
PattersonA (2009) Germs and Jim Crow: the impact of microbiologyi n public health policies in progressive era American South. Journal of the History of Biology42: 522–559.
67.
PettitBSykesBL (2015) Civil rights legislation and legalized exclusion: mass incarceration and the masking of inequality. Sociological Forum30: 589–611.
68.
PfeiferMJ (2014) At the hands of parties unknown? The state of the field of lynching scholarship. Journal of American History101(3): 832–846.
69.
PolsbyN (1960) How to study community power: the pluralist alternative. The Journal of Politics22(3): 474–484.
70.
SabatierPJenkins-SmithH (1993) Policy Change and Learning: An Advocacy Coalition Approach. Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press.
71.
SandburgC (2005) The Chicago race riots, July 1919. In: Encyclopedia of Chicago. Chicago: Chicago Historical Society.
72.
SchattschneiderEE (1960) The Semi-Sovereign People. New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.
73.
Scientific American (ed) (2022) Teaching about racism is essential for education: lessons about racial injustice help students understand reality. Scientific American.
74.
SmithR (1993) Beyond Tocqueville, Myrdal, and Hartz: the multiple traditions in America. American Political Science Review87(3): 549–566.
75.
SmithJD (2002) The campaign for racial purity and the erosion of paternalism in Virginia, 1922-1930: “nominally white, biologically mixed, and legally negro”. Journal of Southern History68(1): 65–106.
76.
Southern Poverty Law Center (2022) Ku Klux Klan.
77.
Southern Poverty Law Center (2023) Civil rights memorial center.
78.
StillwellD (2012) Eugenics visualized. Bulletin of the History of Medicine86(2): 206–236.
79.
TaylorJR (2019) To the future in an America still in the shadow of its shameful past. Human Rights44(1): 5–8.
80.
The Eisenhower Foundation (2018) Healing Our Divided Society: Investing in America FiftyYears After the Kerner Report. Reportno. Report number|, date. Place published|: institution|.
81.
The Pew Charitable Trusts (2023) Racial disparities persist in many U.S. jails: despite narrowed gap in incarceration rates, Black people remain overrepresented in jail populations, admissions—and stay longer on average.
82.
TrumanD (1951) The Govenmental Process. New York: Knopf.
83.
TrumanD (1959) The American system in crisis. Political Science Quarterly74: 481–497.
84.
Tulsa Historical Society and Museum (2023) 1921 Tulsa race massacre.
85.
UgyelLGivelMChophelD (2024) Punctuating “happiness”: punctuated equilibrium theory and the agenda-setting of the gross national happiness (GNH) policy in Bhutan. Review of Policy Research41(3): 491–507.
86.
United States KernerCommission (1968) Report of the National Advisory Commission on Civil Disorders. Washington, D.C. 1968.
87.
VogelD (2009) Political science and the study of corporate power: a dissent from the new conventional wisdom. British Journal of Political Science17: 385–408.
88.
WatsonMF (2024) Caste and Black intergenerational racial trauma in the United States of America. Family Process63: 475–487.
89.
WeibleC (2024) Theories of the Policy Process. New York and London: Routledge.
90.
WilkersonI (2020) Caste: The Origins of our Discontents. New York: Random House.
91.
WoodWHairILouiseA (2006) Lynching and racial violence. In: HoltTCGreenLBWilsonCR (eds). The New Encyclopedia of Southern Culture. Chapel Hill, N.C.: University of North Carolina Press.
