Using multiple means of expressing stories about observations, ideas, emotions, and activities can expand a researcher's opportunity to better understand the complex narrative participants construct about how they experience life events. This article includes a description of three types of narrative texts (written, spoken, and visual) and an analysis process that includes a variety of readings for each type of text as well as a relational reading for a combination of texts. A narrative research study is used to illustrate the model. Discussion includes the challenges and benefits of using multiple texts in narrative research and suggests other forms of research design where multiple texts may be appropriate.
Arvay, M. (1998) `Narratives of Secondary Traumatic Stress: Stories of Struggle and Hope', Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada.
2.
Bal, M. (1997) Narratology: Introduction to the Theory of Narrative (2nd Edition). Toronto, ON : University of Toronto.
3.
Banks, M. (2001) Visual Methods in Social Research. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
4.
Bazerman, C. (2004a) `Intertextuality: How Texts Rely on Other Texts' , in C. Bazerman and P.A. Prior (eds) What Writing Does and How It Does It: An Introduction to Analyzing Texts and Textual Practices, pp. 83-96. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
5.
Bazerman, C. (2004b) `Speech Acts, Genres, and Activity Systems: How Texts Organize Activity in People', in C. Bazerman and P.A. Prior (eds) What Writing Does and How It Does It: An Introduction to Analyzing Texts and Textual Practices, pp. 309-39. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
6.
Boyd, F. and Ikpeze, C. (2007) `Navigating a Literacy Landscape: Teaching Conceptual Understanding with Multiple Text Types', Journal of Literacy Research39(2): 217-48.
7.
Bruner, J. (1990) Acts of Meaning. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
8.
Cody, W. (2001a) `Bearing Witness-Not Bearing Witness as Synergistic Individual-Community Becoming', Nursing Research Quarterly14(2): 94-100.
9.
Cody, W. (2001b) `The Ethics of Bearing Witness in Healthcare: A Beginning Exploration', Nursing Research Quarterly14(4): 288-96.
10.
Davidson, J., Hart, K. and Haines, J. (2005) `Contextualising Imagery in Dreams Following a September 11 Video from Television News', Australian Psychologist40(3): 202-6.
11.
Dooling, T. (1986) `And Nothing but the Truth', ParabolaXI(I): 62-5.
12.
Hamblen, J. (2001) `How the community may be affected by media coverage of the terrorist attack: A National Center for PTSD fact sheet', URL (consulted 2 April 2003): http:www.ncptsd.org/fact/disaster/fs-media-disaster.html
13.
Harding, S.F. (1987) `Convicted by the Holy Spirit: The Rhetoric of Fundamental Baptist Conversion', American Ethnologist14(1): 167-81.
14.
Keats, P.A. (2005) `Vicarious Witnessing in European Concentration Camps: Imagining the Trauma of Another', Traumatology11(3): 171-87.
15.
Leander, K. and Prior, P. (2004) `Speaking and Writing: How Talk and Text Interact in Situated Practices', in C. Bazerman and P.A. Prior (eds) What Writing Does and How It Does It: An Introduction to Analyzing Texts and Textual Practices , pp. 201-37. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
16.
Lieblich, A., Tuval-Mashiach, R. and Zilber, T. (1998) Narrative Research: Reading, Analysis, and Interpretation . Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
17.
Malpede, K. (1996) `Thoughts on a Theater of Witness and Excerpts from Two Plays of Witness: Better People, The Beekeeper's Daughter', in C.B. Stozier and M. Flynn (eds) Genocide, War, and Human Survival, pp. 231-42. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
18.
Mishler, E.G. (1986) Research Interviewing: Context and Narrative. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .
19.
Mishler, E.G. (1995) `Models of Narrative Analysis: A Typology', Journal of Narrative and Life History5(2): 87-123.
20.
Nokes, J., Dole, J. and Hacker, D., (2007) `Teaching High School Students to Use Heuristics while Reading Historical Texts', Journal of Educational Psychology99(3): 492-504.
21.
Pearlman, L. and Saakvitne, K. (1995) Trauma and the Therapist: Countertransference and Vicarious Traumatization in Psychology with Incest Survivors. New York: W. W. Norton.
22.
Pfefferbaum, B., Nixon, S., Tucker, P., Tivis, R., Moore, V., Gurwitch, R., Pynoos, R. and Geis, H. (1999) `Posttraumatic Stress Responses in Bereaved Children After the Oklahoma City Bombing', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry38(11): 1372-81.
23.
Polkinghorne, D.E. (1988) Narrative Knowing and the Human Sciences. New York: State University of New York Press.
24.
Propper, R., Stickgold, R., Keeley, R. and Christman, S. (2007) `Is Television Traumatic?: Dreams, Stress, and Media Exposure in the Aftermath of September 11, 2001', Psychological Science18(4): 334-40.
25.
Rose, G. (2001) Visual Methodologies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
26.
Richardson, L. (1997) Fields of Play: Constructing an Academic Life. New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University.
27.
Richardson, L. (2000) `Writing: A Method of Inquiry', in N. Denzin and Y. Lincoln (eds) Handbook of Qualitative Research (2nd Edition), pp. 923-48. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
28.
Riessman, C.K. (1993) Narrative Analysis. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
29.
Sturken, M. and Cartwright L. (2001) Practices of Looking: An Introduction to Visual Culture. New York: Oxford University .
30.
Weingarten, K. (2000) `Witnessing, Wonder, and Hope', Family Process39(4): 389-402.
31.
Westwood, M.J., Keats, P.A. and Wilensky, P. (2003) `Therapeutic Enactment: Integrating Individual and Group Counselling Models for Change', Journal for Specialists in Group Work28(2): 122-38.
32.
Westwood, M.J. and Wilensky, P. (2005) Therapeutic Enactment: Restoring Vitality through Trauma Repair in Groups. Vancouver, BC: Group Action.
33.
Wysocki, A. (2004) `Multiple Media of Texts: How on Screen and Paper Text Incorporate Words, Images, and Other Media', in C. Bazerman and P.A. Prior (eds) What Writing Does and How It Does It: An Introduction to Analyzing Texts and Textual Practices, pp. 123-63. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
