Fossil fuel combustion contributes to climate change through carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions. Renewable fuels are an option for mitigating greenhouse gases (GHG) while using the same engine technology. Because ethanol as a biofuel is a feasible renewable source of energy, this study aims to develop a method for onboard monitoring of ethanol and gasoline fuel consumption and recording CO2 emissions inventory of each fuel. The fuel injector pulse was used as the reference for the calculation. The cumulative CO2 emissions recorded on real driving emissions routes showed emissions of 80.5 g CO2/km for fossil fuel and 105.6 g CO2/km for biofuel. This method allows the creation of onboard records according to the sources of CO2, fossil fuels, and biofuel to create an inventory using components available in the engine. Blending biofuels into gasoline is a way to reduce the environmental impact of current propulsion technologies during the transition to zero-emission vehicles.
ZhangYLuoXQiuYFuY.Understanding the generation mechanism of BEV drivers’ charging demand: an exploration of the relationship between charging choice and complexity of trip chaining patterns. Transp Res2022; 158: 110–126.
2.
DaemmeLPenteadoRFerreiraRErreraMCorrêaSOstapiukI.Particulate matter emissions from flex-fuel vehicles with direct fuel injection. Atmos Pollut Res2021; 12: 1–10.
3.
FurfariS.Energy efficiency of engines and appliances for transport on land, water, and in air. Ambio2016; 45(Suppl 1): S63–S68.
4.
OhYParkJLeeJTSeoJParkS.Development strategies to satisfy corporate average CO2 emission regulations of light duty vehicles (LDVs) in Korea. Energy Policy2016; 98: 121–132.
5.
CaiHPrussiMOuL, et al. Decarbonization potential of on-road fuels and powertrains in the European Union and the United States: a well-to-wheels assessment. Sustain Energy Fuels2022; 6(19): 4398–4417.
6.
ZhouJFangWHanXSunQLiuDLiuS.Rebound effect of carbon emissions of new energy vehicle consumption: a case study of Beijing. Int J Environ Sci Technol2023; 20(7): 7603–7620.
7.
RaoRNSilitongaASShamsuddinAH, et al. Effect of ethanol and gasoline blending on the performance of a stationary small single cylinder engine. Arab J Sci Eng2020; 45(7): 5793–5802.
8.
GoncaGCakirMSahinB.Performance characteristics and emission formations of a spark ignition (SI) engine fueled with different gaseous fuels. Arab J Sci Eng2018; 43(9): 4487–4499.
9.
ZhouLZhangFWangLZhangQ.Flexible hydrogen production source for fuel cell vehicle to reduce emission pollution and costs under the multi-objective optimization framework. J Clean Prod2022; 337: 130284.
10.
M. SabriMFDanapalasingamKARahmatMF. A review on hybrid electric vehicles architecture and energy management strategies. Renew Sustain Energ Rev2016; 53: 1433–1442.
11.
BlockASongCH.Exploring the characteristics of technological knowledge interaction dynamics in the field of solid-state batteries: a patent-based approach. J Clean Prod2022; 353: 131689.
TriantafyllopoulosGKontsesATsokolisDNtziachristosLSamarasZ.Potential of energy efficiency technologies in reducing vehicle consumption under type approval and real world conditions. Energy2017; 140: 365–373.
14.
FontarasGZacharofN-GCiuffoB.Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions from passenger cars in Europe – laboratory versus real-world emissions. Prog Energy Combust Sci2017; 60: 97–131.
15.
DasoreARajakUPanchalMReddyVNVermaTNChaurasiyaPK.Prediction of overall characteristics of a dual fuel CI engine working on low-density ethanol and diesel blends at varying compression ratios. Arab J Sci Eng2022; 47(12): 15323–15330.
16.
PeléRBrequignyPBellettreJMounaïm-RousselleC.Performances and pollutant emissions of spark ignition engine using direct injection for blends of ethanol/ammonia and pure ammonia. Int J Engine Res2024; 25(2): 320–333.
17.
IodicePSenatoreALangellaGAmoresanoA.Effect of ethanol–gasoline blends on CO and HC emissions in last generation SI engines within the cold-start transient: an experimental investigation. Appl Energy2016; 179: 182–190.
18.
GiechaskielBVlachosTRiccobonoFForniFColomboRMontignyF, et al. Implementation of portable emissions measurement systems (PEMS) for the real-driving emissions (RDE) regulation in Europe. 2016:1–14.
19.
TietgeUMockPFrancoVZacharofN.From laboratory to road: modeling the divergence between official and real-world fuel consumption and CO2 emission values in the German passenger car market for the years 2001–2014. Energy Policy2017; 103: 212–222.
20.
GreeneDLLiuJKhattakAJWaliBHopsonJLGoeltzR.How does on-road fuel economy vary with vehicle cumulative mileage and daily use?Transp Res2017; 55: 142–161.
21.
HoSHWongYDChangVWC. Developing Singapore driving cycle for passenger cars to estimate fuel consumption and vehicular emissions. Atmos Environ2014; 97: 353–362.
22.
ZhangSWuYUnPFuLHaoJ.Modeling real-world fuel consumption and carbon dioxide emissions with high resolution for light-duty passenger vehicles in a traffic populated city. Energy2016; 113: 461–471.
23.
GallusJKirchnerUVogtRBenterT.Impact of driving style and road grade on gaseous exhaust emissions of passenger vehicles measured by a portable emission measurement system (PEMS). Transp Res2017; 52(2): 215–226.
24.
KousoulidouMFontarasGNtziachristosLBonnelPSamarasZDilaraP.Use of portable emissions measurement system (PEMS) for the development and validation of passenger car emission factors. Atmos Environ2013; 64: 329–338.
25.
DonateoTGiovinazziM.Building a cycle for real driving emissions. Energy Proc2017; 126: 891–898.
26.
O'DriscollRStettlerMEJMoldenNOxleyTApSimonHM. Real world CO(2) and NO(x) emissions from 149 Euro 5 and 6 diesel, gasoline and hybrid passenger cars. Sci Total Environ2018; 621: 282–290.
27.
SentoffKMAultman-HallLHolménBA.Implications of driving style and road grade for accurate vehicle activity data and emissions estimates. Transp Res D Transp Environ2015; 35: 175–188.
28.
DuarteGOGonçalvesGABaptistaPCFariasTL.Establishing bonds between vehicle certification data and real-world vehicle fuel consumption – a vehicle specific power approach. Energy Convers Manag2015; 92: 251–265.
29.
EhsaniMAhmadiAFadaiD.Modeling of vehicle fuel consumption and carbon dioxide emission in road transport. Renew Sustain Energ Rev2016; 53: 1638–1648.
30.
PathakSSinghYSoodVChanniwalaS.Refinement of the legislative test cell conditions based on local real world ambient condition. SAE technical paper. 2017.
31.
PadalaSLeMKKookSHawkesER.Imaging diagnostics of ethanol port fuel injection sprays for automobile engine applications. Appl Therm Eng2013; 52(1): 24–37.
32.
PassariniLCNakajimaPR.Development of a high-speed solenoid valve: an investigation of the importance of the armature mass on the dynamic response. J Braz Soc Mech Sci Eng2003; 25(4): 329–335.
33.
HuNYangJZhouP.Sensitivity analysis of the dynamic response of an electronic fuel injector regarding fuel properties and operating conditions. Appl Therm Eng2018; 129: 709–724.
34.
DengXChenZWangXZhenHXieR.Exhaust noise, performance and emission characteristics of spark ignition engine fuelled with pure gasoline and hydrous ethanol gasoline blends. Case Stud Therm Eng2018; 12: 55–63.
35.
ElfasakhanyA.State of art of using biofuels in spark ignition engines. Energies2021; 14(3): 779.
36.
StamenkovićOSSiliveruKVeljkovićVB, et al. Production of biofuels from sorghum. Renew Sustain Energ Rev2020; 124: 109769.
37.
MuñozMHeebNVHaagR, et al. Bioethanol blending reduces nanoparticle, PAH, and alkyl- and nitro-PAH emissions and the genotoxic potential of exhaust from a gasoline direct injection flex-fuel vehicle. Environ Sci Technol2016; 50(21): 11853–11861.
38.
HuangJKhanMTPerecinDCoelhoSTZhangM.Sugarcane for bioethanol production: potential of bagasse in Chinese perspective. Renew Sustain Energ Rev2020; 133: 110296.
39.
Nicula de CastroREBrito AlvesRMOller NascimentoCA.Assessing the sugarcane bagasse and straw as a biofuel to propel light vehicles. Sustain Energy Fuels2021; 5(9): 2563–2577.
40.
MagaDThonemannNHiebelM, et al. Comparative life cycle assessment of first- and second-generation ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil. Int J Life Cycle Assess2019; 24(2): 266–280.
BuiVGBuiTMTNguyenVGTranVNTruongLBTPhamLHP. Concept of twining injector system for spark-ignition engine fueled with syngas-biogas-hydrogen operating in solar-biomass hybrid energy system. Int J Hydrogen Energy2023; 48(18): 6871–6890.
43.
AugustusDeMeloCDe Martino JannuzziGDe Mello SantanaPH.Why should Brazil to implement mandatory fuel economy standards for the light vehicle fleet?Renew Sustain Energ Rev2018; 81: 1166–1174.
44.
El-FarougMYanFLuoMFiifi TurksonR.Spark ignition engine combustion, performance and emission products from hydrous ethanol and its blends with gasoline. Energies2016; 9(12): 24.
45.
MachadoGBde MeloTCCCandidoACDAF. Flex-fuel engine: influence of ethanol content on power and efficiencies. Int J Engine Res2021; 22(1): 273–283.
46.
AhnKYilmazHStefanopoulouAJiangL.Ethanol content estimation in flex fuel direct injection engines using in-cylinder pressure measurements. SAE technical paper. 2010.
47.
XuCLiuWXieC, et al. Accelerating laminar flame speed of hydrous ethanol via oxygen-rich combustion. Bioenergy Res2021; 14(2): 634–644.
48.
OlmosABanharaREngler PintoCGeorgesM.Emissions, fuel economy and energy consumption of a flex fuel vehicle in different driving cycles. SAE technical paper series. 2019, p.1.
49.
ChilakamarryCRSakinahAMMZularisamAW, et al. Bioconversion of glycerol into biofuels—opportunities and challenges. Bioenergy Res2022; 15(1): 46–61.
50.
LorenziGBaptistaP.Promotion of renewable energy sources in the Portuguese transport sector: a scenario analysis. J Clean Prod2018; 186: 918–932.
51.
KubisMRLyndLR.Carbon capture from corn stover ethanol production via mature consolidated bioprocessing enables large negative biorefinery GHG emissions and fossil fuel-competitive economics. Sustain Energy Fuels2023; 7(16): 3842–3852.
52.
LangshawLAinalisDAchaSShahNStettlerMEJ. Environmental and economic analysis of liquefied natural gas (LNG) for heavy goods vehicles in the UK: a well-to-wheel and total cost of ownership evaluation. Energy Policy2020; 137: 111161.
53.
DuarteGOGonçalvesGAFariasTL.Analysis of fuel consumption and pollutant emissions of regulated and alternative driving cycles based on real-world measurements. Transp Res D Transp Environ2016; 44: 43–54.
54.
PhlipsPOrpeMVasquezG.Decoupling vehicle work from powertrain properties in vehicle fuel consumption. SAE Int J Fuel Lubricants2018; 11(4): 533–543.
55.
WangJRakhaHA.Fuel consumption model for conventional diesel buses. Appl Energy2016; 170: 394–402.
56.
SamarasZTsokolisDDimaratosANtziachristosLDoulgerisSLigterinkN, et al. A model based definition of a reference CO2 emissions value for passenger cars under real world conditions. SAE technical paper. 2018, pp.1–9.
57.
HarantováVOtáhalováZKasanickýM.Estimation of fuel consumption based on data from opening fuel injector valve. Transp Res Procedia2019; 40: 236–243.
58.
KöhlMHermannsHBiewerS. Efficient monitoring of real driving emissions. In: ColomboCLeuckerM (eds) Lecture notes in computer science (including subseries lecture notes in artificial intelligence and lecture notes in bioinformatics). Springer NatureSwitzerland AG, 2018, pp.299–315.
MeloTCCDMachadoGBBelchiorCRP, et al. Hydrous ethanol–gasoline blends – combustion and emission investigations on a flex-fuel engine. Fuel2012; 97: 796–804.
61.
ANP. Resolution 764. Brazil: National Agency of Petroleum. Natural Gas and Biofuels, 2018.
OhYParkJLeeJEomMDParkS.Modeling effects of vehicle specifications on fuel economy based on engine fuel consumption map and vehicle dynamics. Transp Res D Transp Environ2014; 32: 287–302.
64.
ABNT. NBR 6601. Light duty road vehicles e determination of hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, carbon dioxide and particulate matter in the exhaust gas. Rio de Janeiro: ABNT - Brazilian Association of Technical Standardshttp://www.abntcatalogo.com.br/norma.aspx?ID=092161 (2012, accessed 10 May 2018).
Commission Regulation. Regulation 2016/427 - emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles - Euro 6, 2016.
67.
Commission Regulation. Regulation 2016/646 - emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles - Euro 6. Vol. 3, 2016.
68.
Commission Regulation. Regulation 2017/1154 - type-approval of motor vehicles with respect to emissions from light passenger and commercial vehicles (Euro 5 and Euro 6) and on access to vehicle repair and maintenance information. Vol. 1154, 2017, pp.708–732.
69.
Commission Regulation. Regulation 2018/1832 - the purpose of improving the emission type approval tests and procedures for light passenger and commercial vehicles, including those for in-service conformity and real-driving emissions and introducing devices for monitoring the co. Vol. 2008, 2018, p.314.
70.
Siemens. Coriolis flowmeters. NÜRNBERG; 2010.
71.
KöckK.Real-world fuel consumption measurement as the base for the compliance to future CO2 regulations. SAE technical paper, 2019, pp.1–9.
de Salvo JuniorOSilva ForcettoALMaria LaganáAAVaz de AlmeidaFGBaptistaP.Combining on-road measurements and life-cycle carbon emissions of flex-fuel vehicle. Renew Sustain Energ Rev2024; 204: 114784.
74.
CaoYZhaoHZhangS, et al. Impacts of ethanol blended fuels and cold temperature on VOC emissions from gasoline vehicles in China. Environ Pollut2024; 348: 123869.
75.
ChenLZhangRPanJWeiH.Effects of partitioned fuel distribution on auto-ignition and knocking under spark assisted compression ignition conditions. Appl Energy2020; 260: 114269.
76.
ElshenawyAAAbdel RazikSMGadMS.Modeling of combustion and emissions behavior on the effect of ethanol–gasoline blends in a four stroke SI engine. Adv Mech Eng2023; 15(3): 1–16.
77.
TaylorRI.Fuel-lubricant interactions: critical review of recent work. Lubricants2021; 9(9): 1–16.
78.
GschwendDSolticPEdingerPWokaunAVogelF.Performance evaluation of gasoline alternatives using a thermodynamic spark-ignition engine model. Sustain Energy Fuels2017; 1(9): 1991–2005.
79.
FariaMDuarteGBaptistaP.Assessing electric mobility feasibility based on naturalistic driving data. J Clean Prod2019; 206: 646–660.
