Due to increasing climate awareness and the introduction of much stricter exhaust emission legislation the internal combustion engine technology faces major challenges. Although the development and state of technology of internal combustion engines generally reached a very high level over the last years those need to be improved even more. Combining water injection with a diesel engine, therefore, seems to be the next logical step in developing a highly efficient drive train for future mobility. To investigate these potentials, a comprehensive evaluation of water injection on the diesel engine was carried out. This study covers >560 individual operating points on the test bench. The tests were carried out on a single-cylinder derived from a Euro 6d four-cylinder passenger car with the port water injection. Furthermore, a detailed pressure trace analysis (PTA) was performed to evaluate various aspects regarding combustion, emission, etc. The results show no significant effects of water injection on the combustion process, but great potential for NOx reduction. It has been shown that with the use of water injection at water-to-fuel rates of 25%, 50%, and 100%, NOx reduction without deterioration of soot levels can be achieved in 62%, 40%, and 20% of the experiments, respectively. Furthermore, water injection in combination with EGR offers additional reduction in NOx emissions.
GuanWWangXZhaoHLiuH. Exploring the high load potential of diesel–methanol dual-fuel operation with miller cycle, exhaust gas recirculation, and intake air cooling on a heavy-duty diesel engine. Int J Engine Res2020; 22: 2318–2336.
2.
RobertsLMageeMShaverG, et al. Modeling the impact of early exhaust valve opening on exhaust after treatment thermal management and efficiency for compression ignition engines. Int J Engine Res2015; 16(6): 773–794.
3.
ManiatisPWagnerUKochT. A model-based and experimental approach for the determination of suitable variable valve timings for cold start in partial load operation of a passenger car single-cylinder diesel engine. Int J Engine Res2019; 20(1): 141–154.
4.
LapuertaMRamosÁFernández-RodríguezDGonzález-GarcíaI. High-pressure versus low-pressure exhaust gas recirculation in a Euro 6 diesel engine with lean-NOx trap: effectiveness to reduce NOx emissions. Int J Engine Res2019; 20(1): 155–163.
5.
TakasakiK. Verbesserung der Verbrennung im Dieselmotor durch geschichtete Wassereinspritzung. MTZ-Motortechnische Zeitschrift1998; 59(4): 276–284.
6.
BirkenhagenSRulfsH. Reduktionsmittel- und Eassereinspritzung bei mittelschnelllaufenden Dieselmotoren. MTZ-Motortechnische Zeitschrift2001; 62(11): 946–954.
7.
PammingerMWangBHallCMVojtechRWallnerT. The impact of water injection and exhaust gas recirculation on combustion and emissions in a heavy-duty compression ignition engine operated on diesel and gasoline. Int J Engine Res2020; 21(8): 1555–1573.
8.
DörksenHWeißgerberASimonC. Vorgelagerte Kraftstoffmenge bei geschichteter Diesel-Wasser-Einspritzung. MTZ-Motortechnische Zeitschrift2007; 68(1): 58–64.
9.
PlöntzkeRZellbeckH. Wassereinspritzung im Dieselmotor. MTZ-Motortechnische Zeitschrift2016; 77(4): 28–33.
10.
PaulsRSimonC. Einfluss der geschichteten Wassereinspritzung auf das Abgas-und Verbrauchsverhalten eines Dieselmotors mit Direkteinspritzung. MTZ-Motortechnische Zeitschrift2004; 65(1): 49–55.
11.
BartschC. Mit Wasser gegen Rußemissionen. MTZ-Motortechnische Zeitschrift2014; 75(10): 34–39.
12.
BedfordFRutlandCDittrichPRaabAWirbeleitF. Effects of direct water injection on DI diesel engine combustion. SAE Tech Pap Ser2000; 1: 293–304.
13.
ArmasOBallesterosRMartosFAgudeloJ. Characterization of light duty diesel engine pollutant emissions using water-emulsified fuel. Fuel2005; 84(7–8): 1011–1018.
14.
TauziaXMaiboomAShahSR. Experimental study of inlet manifold water injection on combustion and emissions of an automotive direct injection diesel engine. Energy2010; 35(9): 3628–3639.
15.
LifAHolmbergK. Water-in-diesel emulsions and related systems. Adv Colloid Interface Sci2006; 123–126: 231–239.
16.
BöhmMDurstBUnterwegerGRubbertS. Ansätze zur Onboard-Wassergewinnung für eine Wassereinspritzung. ATZ-Automobiltechnische Zeitschrift2016; 118(1): 54–59.
17.
VeljiAEichelERemmelsW, et al. Dieselmotoren erfüllen mit Wassereinspritzung zukünftige NOx-und Rußgrenzwerte. Motortechnische Zeitschrift1996; 57(7/8): 400–407.
18.
PauerTFrohnmaierMWaltherJSchenkPHettingerAKampmannS. (2016, April). Optimization of gasoline engines by water injection. In Proceedings of the 37th International Vienna Motor Symposium, Vienna, Austria (pp. 28–29).
19.
FranzkeBVoßhallTAdomeitPMüllerA. Wassereinspritzung zur Erfüllung zukünftiger RDE-Anforderungen für Turbo-Ottomotoren. MTZ – Motortechnische Z2019; 80(3): 32–41.
20.
DuanXLaiMCJansonsMGuoGLiuJ. A review of controlling strategies of the ignition timing and combustion phase in homogeneous charge compression ignition (HCCI) engine. Fuel2021; 285: 119142.
21.
VaccaABargendeMChiodiMChiodiMFrankenT, et al. Analysis of water injection strategies to exploit the thermodynamic effects of water in gasoline engines by means of a 3D-CFD virtual test bench. SAE technical paper 2019-24-0102, 2019, 10.4271/2019-24-0102.
22.
HoppeFThewesMSeibelJBalazsAScharfJ. Evaluation of the potential of water injection for gasoline engines. SAE Int J Engines2017; 10(5): 2500–2512.
23.
WangJDuanXLiuY, et al. Numerical investigation of water injection quantity and water injection timing on the thermodynamics, combustion and emissions in a hydrogen enriched lean-burn natural gas SI engine. Int J Hydrogen Energy2020; 45(35): 17935–17952.
24.
BargendeM. Ein Gleichungsansatz zur Berechnung der instationären Wandwärmeverluste im Hochdruckteil von Ottomotoren. PhD Thesis, Technische Hochschule Darmstadt, 1991.
25.
HohenbergG.Druckmessung und Druckauswertung zur Ermittlung der Energieumsetzung. Final Report No. R430, Forschungsvereinigung Verbrennungskraftmaschinen (FVV), 1983.
26.
GrillMBargendeM. The cylinder module. MTZ Worldw2009; 70(10): 60–66.
27.
GrillMBargendeM. The development of an highly modular designed zero-dimensional engine process calculation code. SAE Int J Engines2010; 3(1): 1–11.
28.
GrillM.Objektorientierte Prozessrechnung von Verbrennungsmotoren. PhD Thesis, Stuttgart: Universität Stuttgart, 2006.
29.
PrescherK.Methoden zur thermodynamischen Analyse der Verbrennungsvorgänge in Ottomotorenr. Habilitation Thesis, Stuttgart: 1984.
30.
LaurenzW.Entwicklung und Anwendung eines Berechnungsverfahrens für den ottomotorischen Arbeitsprozess unter Zugrundelegung einer quasidimensionalen Modellvorstelllung. PhD Thesis, Aachen: RWTH Aachen, 1982.
31.
HuangJ. A simple accurate formula for calculating saturation vapor pressure of water and ice. J Appl Meteorol Climatol2018; 57(6): 1265–1272.
BeckS.Beschreibung des Zündverzuges von dieselähnlichen Kraftstoffenim HCCI-Betrieb. PhD Thesis, Stuttgart: Universität Stuttgart, 2012.
34.
ChiodiM. An innovative 3D-CFD-approach towards virtual development of internal combustion engines. Wiesbaden: Vieweg+Teubner Verlag/Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH Wiesbaden, 2011.
