Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

The recognition and enforcement of patents in developing countries has raised considerable controversy, particularly in relation to the implications of patents for access to drugs. Questions have arisen, among other issues, on the role of the public sector in discovering new drugs, the strategic use by the pharmaceutical industry of patents to protect not only new drugs, but also to block or delay competition. The difficulties that some developing countries have faced to use the flexibilities allowed by the Agreement on Trade-Related Aspects of Intellectual Property Rights (the TRIPS Agreement), such as parallel imports and compulsory licenses, have also highlighted the imbalances created by the extension of patent protection to developing countries under the World Trade Organization (WTO) rules.

La Santé Publique et les Droits de Propriété Intellectuelle La reconnaissance et l'application des brevets dans les pays en développement ont suscité de fortes controverses, notamment en ce qui concerne l'impact des brevets en matière d'accès aux médicaments. Parmi les questions posées, il y a lieu de mentionner le rôle du secteur public dans la découverte de nouveaux médicaments, l'utilisation stratégique des brevets par l'industrie pharmaceutique soucieuse de protéger les nouveaux médicaments, mais aussi d'entraver voire de retarder toute concurrence. Les difficultés rencontrées par plusieurs pays en développement à tirer partie de la flexibilité prévue dans les accords ADPIC, notamment relative aux importations parallèles et à l'obligation de licence, ont mis en évidence les déséquilibres créés par l'extension, selon les règles de l'OMC, de la protection des brevets aux pays en développement. R E S U M E N Salud Pública y Derechos de Propiedad Intelectual El reconocimiento y respeto de las patentes en los países en desarrollo ha sido causa de considerables controversias, especialmente en lo que se refiere a las implicaciones

Salud Pública y Derechos de Propiedad Intelectual El reconocimiento y respeto de las patentes en los países en desarrollo ha sido causa de considerables controversias, especialmente en lo que se refiere a las implicacionesde las patentes que permiten el acceso a los medicamentos. Han surgido cuestionamientos, entre otras cuestiones, sobre el papel que desempeña el sector público en los descubrimientos de nuevas drogas, la utilización estratégica por parte de la industria farmacéutica de las patentes para la protección no sólo de dichos nuevos medicamentos, sino también para impedir o retardar la competencia. Las dificultades que han enfrentado algunos países en desarrollo para valerse de la flexibilidad que permite el acuerdo TRIPS, como por ejemplo las importaciones paralelas y las licencias obligatorias, también han puesto de relieve los desequilibrios que crea la extensión de la protección de las patentes a los países en desarrollo de conformidad con las reglas de la OMC.

Keywords

access to medicines patents pharmaceutical R&D

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Aharonian, G. (2000) `Patent Examination System is Intellectually Corrupt' , Patnews, (1 May).

Bale, H. (2000) `TRIPS, Pharmaceuticals and Developing Countries: "Implications for Drug Access and Drug Development"', paper presented to the WHO Workshop on the TRIPS Agreement and its Impact on Pharmaceuticals, IFPMA, Jakarta, 2-4 May.

Byström, M. and Einarsson, P. (2001) `TRIPS: "Consequences for Developing Countries: Implications for Swedish Development Cooperation"', report commissioned by the Swedish International Development Cooperation Agency.

Casadio Tarabusi, C. and Vickery, G. (1998) `Globalization in the Pharmaceutical Industry' , International Journal of Health Services 28(1): 67-105.

Chabner, B. and Shoemaker, D. (1989) `Drug Development for Cancer: Implications for Chemical Modifiers', International Journal of Radiation Oncology, Biology and Physics 16(4).

Chin, J. and Grossman, G. (1990) `Intellectual Property Rights and North-South Trade' , in R. Jones and A. Krueger (eds) The Political Economy of International Trade: Essays in Honor of Robert E. Baldwin. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell.

Cook, T. (1997) `Pharmaceutical Patents and the Generic Sector in Europe', Patent World 97: 36-40.

Cook, T. , Doyle, C. and Jabbari, D. (1991) Pharmaceuticals Biotechnology and the Law. New York: Stockton Press.

Correa, C. (1999) `Intellectual Property Rights and the Use of Compulsory Licenses: Options for Developing Countries', Trade-Related Agenda, Development and Equity, Working Paper, South Centre, Geneva.

10.

Correa, C. (2000) Intellectual Property Rights, the WTO and Developing Countries. London: Zed Books/ Third World Network.

11.

Correa, C. (2001a) `TRIPS and R&D Incentive in the Pharmaceutical Sector', paper prepared for the Commission on Macroeconomics and Health, November.

12.

Correa, C. (2001b) `Trends in Drug Patenting', Case Studies, Corregidor, Buenos Aires.

13.

Correa, C. (2002 forthcoming) `Managing the Provision of Knowledge: The Design of Intellectual Property Laws', in I. Kaul (ed.) Providing Global Public Goods-Managing Globalization . New York: Oxford University Press .

14.

David, P. (1992) `Knowledge, Property and the System Dynamics of Technological Change', paper presented to World Bank Annual Conference on Development Economics, Washington, DC, 30 April-1 May.

15.

Deardoff, A. (1992) `Welfare Economics of Patent Protection', Economica 59(1): 35-51.

16.

Drahos, P. (2002) `Developing Countries and International Intellectual Property Standard-Setting', study prepared for the UK Commission on Intellectual Property Rights, http://www.iprcommission.org

17.

Eli Lilly (2001) `Life after Prozac', Business Week , (23 July): 53-4.

18.

Ernst & Young LLP (2001) `Pharmaceutical Industry R&D Cost: Key Findings about Public Citizen Report' , August 8.

19.

European Commission (DGTrade) (2002) `Tiered Pricing for Medicines Exported to Developing Countries, Measures to Prevent their Re-importation into the EC Market and Tariffs in Developing Countries', Working Document, European Commission, Brussels, 22 April.

20.

FIM/IFPMA (Federation Internationale de l'Industrie du Medicament/International Federation of Pharmaceutical Manufacturers Association) ( 1998) `The Question of Patents: The Key Medical Progress and Industrial Development', Geneva.

21.

Froud, J. , Haslam, C. , Sukhdev, J. , Karel, W. and Willis, R. (1998) `British Pharmaceuticals: A Cautionary Tale', Economy and Society 27(4): 555-84.

22.

Granstrand, O. (1999) The Economics and Management of Intellectual Property. Towards Intellectual Capitalism. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar.

23.

Hicks, D. and Katz, S. (1997) `The Changing Shape of British Industrial Research', STEEP Special Report No. 6, SPRU. Falmer: Sussex University.

24.

IMS Health (2002) Market Report, accessed 15 April 2002, http://www.imsglobal.com/insight/report/global/report.htm

25.

Keayla, B. (1999) `TRIPS: Impact on Health and Pharmaceuticals', paper presented to Regional Consultation on WTO Multilateral Trade Agreements and their Implications on Health - TRIPS, Bangkok, 16-18 August.

26.

Keely, L. (2000) Pathway from Poverty? Intellectual Property and Developing Countries. London: IP Institute.

27.

Kettler, H. (1999) Updating the Cost of a New Chemical Entity. London: Office of Health Economics.

28.

Lanjouw, J. and Cockburn, I. (2001) `New Pills for Poor People? Empirical Evidence after GATT', World Development 29(2): 265-90.

29.

Levin, R. , Klevorich, R. and Nelson, R. (1987) `Appropriating the Returns from Industrial Research and Development', Brookings Papers on Economic Activity No. 3. SP ISS 783-820.

30.

Love, J. (2001) `Policies that Ensure Access to Medicine, and Promote Innovation, with Special Attention to Issues Concerning the Impact of Parallel Trade on the Competitive Sector, and a Trade Framework to Support Global R&D on New Care Invention', presented at the WHO/WTO Joint Secretariat Workshop on Differential Pricing and Financing of Essential Drugs, Norway.

31.

Médicins Sans Frontières (2001) `Fatal Imbalance: The Crisis in Research and Development for Drugs for Neglected Diseases', Médicins Sans Frontières, Geneva.

32.

Merges, R. and Nelson, R. (1996) `On Limiting or Encouraging Rivalry in Technical Progress: The Effect of Patent-Scope Decisions', in R. Nelson (ed.) The Sources of Economic Growth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press .

33.

Mills, A. (2001) `Technology and Science as Global Public Goods: Tackling Priority Diseases of Poor Countries', paper prepared for the Annual Bank Conference on Development Economics, Barcelona, 25-6 June.

34.

NERA (National Economic Research Associates) ( 1998) `Policy Relating to Generic Medicines in the OECD', Final report for the European Commission, London, December.

35.

Nogués, J. (1993) `Social Costs and Benefits of Introducing Patent Protection for Pharmaceutical Drugs in Developing Countries', The Developing Economies 31(1): 24-53.

36.

Oecd (1992) Technology and the Economy. Paris: TEP.

37.

Ogg, M.S. et al. (2000) `Activities of the International Pharmaceutical Industry in 1999: Pharmaceutical Investment and Output', Centre for Medicines Research International, CMR00-137R.

38.

Oxfam (2000) `Cut the Cost. Fatal Side Effects: Medicine. Patents Under the Microscope', report published by Oxfam, Oxford.

39.

Panitchpakdi, S. (2001) `Globalization and Trade in the New Millennium' , Ministry of Commerce report, Bangkok.

40.

Penrose, E.T. (1951) The Economics of the International Patent System . Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins Press .

41.

PhRMA (Pharmaceutical Research and Manufacturers of America) (2001) A Century of Progress. Washington, DC: PhRMA.

42.

Prescrire International (January 2001).

43.

Rosenberg, T. (2001) `Look at Brazil', New York Times Magazine, 28 January, p. 6.

44.

Rozek, R. (2000) The Effects of Compulsory Licensing on Innovation and Access to Health Care. Washington, DC: NERA.

45.

Scherer, F.M. (1998) `The Patent System and Innovation in Pharmaceuticals' , paper presented at the AIDE (Association Internationale de Droit Economique), Conference on Pharmaceutical Patents, Innovation and Public Health, Toulouse, France, 28-30 January.

46.

Sideri, S. (1994) `The Harmonisation of the Protection of Intellectual Property: Impact on Third World Countries', Working Paper No. 14, UNU/INTECH.

47.

Undp (1999) Human Development Report. New York: Oxford University Press.

48.

Viscusi, W. , Vernon, J. and Harrington, J. (1997) Economics of Regulation and Antitrust, 2nd edn. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.

49.

VSO (2001) Street Price: Making Medicines Affordable for Poor Countries. London : VSO.

50.

Watal, J. (2000) `Pharmaceutical Prices and Welfare Losses: Policy Options for India under the WTO TRIPS Agreement', The World Economy 23(5): 733-52.

51.

WHO (2001) `Globalization, TRIPS and Access to Pharmaceuticals', WHO/ EDM/2001.2, WHO report, March.

52.

World Bank (2001) `Global Economic Prospects and the Developing Countries 2002', World Bank report, Washington, DC.

53.

WTO (2001a) `TRIPS and Pharmaceutical Patents', WTO Secretariat's document, accessed 24 January 2002, http://www.wto.org

54.

WTO (2001b) `Draft Declaration on the TRIPS Agreement and Public Health', WT/MIN(01)/DEC/W/2, WTO ministerial declaration by members, 14 November.

55.

Zaveri, N. (1998) Patents for Medicine. Balanced Patent Law - The Need of the Hour. India: Indian Drug Manufacturers' Association .

Public Health and Intellectual Property Rights

Abstract

Keywords

Get full access to this article

References