Abstract
This article examines the roles of the hierarchy of influences and the imagined audience on reporting. This article uses five interviews with foreign journalists to examine how both the hierarchy of influences and the imagined audience affect foreign journalists’ reportage of Turkey. Both freelance workers and fulltime employees of newspapers were interviewed to gather data.
Keywords
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
Akan
AK
(2018 ) 34 ülkeden 635 yabancı gazeteci seçimler için Türkiye’de [635 foreign journalists from 34 countries are in Turkey for the elections ]. Anadolu Agency , 6 June . Available at: https://www.aa.com.tr/tr/secim-2018/34-ulkeden-635-yabanci-gazeteci-secimler-icin-turkiyede-/1181947 (accessed 27 June 2019 ).
2.
Albayrak
A
(2015 ) Turkey follows up Vice arrests by planning to deport Dutch reporter . The Wall Street Journal , 9 September . Available at: https://www.wsj.com/articles/turkey-follows-up-vice-news-arrests-by-deporting-dutch-reporter-1441811872 (accessed 7 October 2020 ).
3.Al Jazeera (2016 ) Counting the closures: Turkey’s media shutdown . Al Jazeera 6 November . Available at: https://theglobalherald.com/news/counting-the-closures-turkeys-media-shutdown-the-listening-post-lead/ (accessed 18 November 2020 ).
4.
Arsan
E
(2013 ) Killing me softly with his words: Censorship and self-censorship from the Perspective of Turkish Journalists . Turkish Studies 14 (3 ): 447 –462 .
5.
Bowen
J
(2016 ) Inside Cizre: Where Turkish forces stand accused of Kurdish killings . British Broadcasting Corporation , 23 April . Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-36354742 (accessed 16 November 2019 ).
6.British Broadcasting Corporation (2017 ) Turkish authorities block Wikipedia without giving reason , 29 April . Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/world-europe-39754909 (accessed 22 April 2019 ).
7.
Christians
CG
Glasser
TL
McQuail
D
, et al . (2009 ) Normative Theories of the Media: Journalism in Democratic Societies . Chicago, IL : University of Illinois Press .
8.Committee to Protect Journalists (2019 ) Journalists killed in Turkey between 1992–2018 . Available at: https://cpj.org/data/killed/?status=Killed&motiveConfirmed%5B%5D=Confirmed&type%5B%5D=Journalist&cc_fips%5B%5D=TU&start_year=1992&end_year=2018&group_by=year (accessed 22 April 2019 ).
9.
Dockterman
E
(2014 ) Turkey bans Twitter . Time , 21 March . Available at: http://time.com/32864/turkey-bans-twitter/ (accessed 22 April 2019 ).
10.
Ferrucci
P
(2017 ) Exploring public service journalism: Digitally native news nonprofits and engagement . Journalism & Mass Communication Quarterly 94 (1 ): 355 –370 .
11.
Foucault
M
(1975 ) In
Appelrouth
S
Edles
LD
(eds.), Classical and Contemporary Sociological Theory Text and Readings . Los Angeles, CA : SAGE , pp.650 –664 .
12.Freedom House (2018 ) Turkey: Freedom on the net . Available at: https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-net/2018/turkey (accessed 22 April 2019 ).
13.
Gans
HJ
(1979 ) Deciding What’s News: A study of CBS Evening News, NBC Nightly News, Newsweek, and Time . New York : Vintage .
14.
Goffman
E
(1956 ) The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . New York, NY : Anchor Books .
15.
Green
C
(2015 ) Frederike Geerdink: The Dutch journalist facing five years in prison in Turkey for ‘terrorist propaganda’ after highlighting the struggle of the Kurds . The Independent , 3 February . Available at: https://www.independent.co.uk/news/people/frederike-geerdink-dutch-journalist-facing-five-years-prison-turkey-terrorist-propaganda-after-highlighting-struggle-kurds-10021843.html (accessed 7 October 2020 ).
16.
Hanitzsch
T
(2007 ) Deconstructing journalism culture: Toward a universal theory . Communication Theory 17 : 367 –385 .
17.
Hannerz
U
(2004 ). Foreign News . Chicago, IL : The University of Chicago Press .
18.Hürriyet Daily News (2016 ) Over 100 media outlets shut down over Turkey’s failed coup attempt , 28 July . Available at: http://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/over-100-media-outlets-shut-down-over-turkeys-failed-coup-attempt–102178 (accessed 22 April 2019 ).
19.
Kenyon
P
(2018 ) Turkey’s state of emergency ends, while Erdogan’s power grows and ‘purge’ continues . National Public Radio 26 July Available at: Available at: https://www.npr.org/2018/07/26/632307755/turkeys-state-of-emergency-ends-while-erdogans-power-grows-and-purge-continues
20.
Litt
E
(2012 ) Knock, knock. Who’s there? The imagined audience . Journal of Broadcasting & Electronic Media 56 (3 ): 330 –345 .
21.
McGoogan
C
(2016 ) Turkey blocks access to Facebook, Twitter and WhatsApp following ambassador’s assassination . The Telegraph , 20 December . Available at: https://www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2016/12/20/turkey-blocks-access-facebook-twitter-whatsapp-following-ambassadors/
22.
Noelle-Neumann
E
(1974 ) The spiral of silence: A theory of public . Journal of Communication Studies 24 (2 ): 43 –51 .
23.
Pamuk
H
(2014 ) Turkey’s Twitter ban violates free speech: constitutional court . Reuters , 2 April . Available at: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-turkey-twitter-ban/turkeys-twitter-ban-violates-free-speech-constitutional-court-idUSBREA311BF20140402 (accessed 22 April 2020 ).
24.
Reese
SD
(2007 ) Journalism research and the hierarchy of influences model: A global perspective . Brazilian Journalism Research 3 (2 ): 29 –42 .
25.
Reese
SD
Shoemaker
PJ
(2016 ) A media sociology for the networked public sphere: The hierarchy of influences model . Mass Communication & Society 19 (4 ): 389 –410 .
26.Reporters Without Borders (2020 ). Media Ownership Monitor – Turkey . Available at: https://turkey.mom-rsf.org/en/media/print/ (accessed 30 September 2020 )
27.Reporters Without Borders (2020 ). Turkey . Available at: https://rsf.org/en/taxonomy/term/145 (accessed 30 September 2020 ).
28.
Schudson
M
(2001 ) The objectivity norm in American journalism . Journalism 2 (2 ): 149 –170 .
29.
Tastekin
F
(2019 ) Turkey becoming minefield for foreign journalists . Al-Monitor , 8 March . Available at: https://www.al-monitor.com/pulse/originals/2019/03/turkey-becoming-minefield-for-foreign-journalists.html (accessed 27 June 2019 ).
30.
The Guardian
(2016 ) American journalist denied re-entry to Turkey for ‘no reason’ . The Guardian , 25 April , 2016 . Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/media/2016/apr/25/journalist-david-lepeska-turkey-denied-entry (accessed 22 April 2019 ).
31.
Tufekci
Z
(2014 ) Social movements and governments in the Digital Age: Evaluation a Complex Landscape . Journal of International Affairs 68 (1 ): 1 –18 .
32.
Tufekci
Z
(2017 ) Twitter and Teargas: The power and Fragility of Networked Protest . New Haven, CT : Yale University Press .
33.
34.
Wong
JC
(2016 ) Social media may have been blocked during Turkey coup attempt . The Guardian , 15 July . Available at: https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/jul/15/turkey-blocking-social-facebook-twitter-youtube (accessed 22 April 2019 ).
35.
Yesil
B
Sözeri
EK
Khazraee
E
(2017 ) Turkey’s internet policy after the coup attempt: The emergence of a Distributed Network of online suppression and surveillance . Internet Policy Observatory 22: 1–27.
36.
Zaveri
M
(2019 ) Turkey’s ban on Wikipedia is unconstitutional, court says . New York Times , 26 December . Available at: https://www.nytimes.com/2019/12/26/world/europe/wikipedia-ban-turkey.html (accessed 9 October 2020 ).