This study, building on an ideational theory of historical change, examines what role journalism education had in the articulation of objectivity as an occupational norm from the 1890s to the 1940s. An analysis of early texts of journalism education shows how objectivity was naturalized and legitimated. The texts rarely engaged criticism of objectivity and instead mythologized journalism by portraying it as a mechanical process overseen by professionals who are like judges, scientists and professors. The desires of audiences and advertisers did not complicate objectivity, as contemporaneous critics suggested – the texts conclude that market mechanisms were what made objective journalism possible.
AllenDS (2005) Democracy, Inc.: The Press and Law in the Corporate Rationalization of the Public Sphere. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
2.
BanningSA (1998) The professionalization of journalism: A nineteenth-century beginning. Journalism History24(4): 157–163.
3.
BanningSA (2008) Press clubs champion journalism education. In: WinfieldBH (ed.) Journalism,1908: Birth of a Profession. Columbia: University of Missouri Press, pp. 65–81.
4.
BensonI (1937) Fundamentals of Journalism. New York: Prentice-Hall.
5.
BensonRNeveuE (2005) Bourdieu and the Journalistic Field. Malden, MA: Polity Press.
6.
BlackR (1911) Newspaper training for fiction writers. The Editor34(5): 204–205.
7.
BlackfordMGKerrKA (1990) Business Enterprise in American History, 2nd edn.Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
8.
BleyerWG (1916) Types of News Writing. Cambridge, MA: Riverside Press.
9.
BleyerWG (1932) Newspaper Writing and Editing, rev. and enl. edn.Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
10.
BourdieuP (1998) On Television. New York: New Press.
11.
BourdieuPJohnsonR (1993) The Field of Cultural Production: Essays on Art and Literature. New York: Columbia University Press.
12.
BoylanJR (2003) Pulitzer’s School: Columbia University’s School of Journalism, 1903–2003. New York: Columbia University Press.
13.
BushCR (1929) Newspaper Reporting of Public Affairs: An Advanced Course in Newspaper Reporting and a Manual for Professional Newspaper Men. New York: D Appleton.
14.
ByxbeeOF (1901) Establishing a Newspaper: A Handbook for the Prospective Publisher, Including Suggestions for the Financial Advancement of Existing Daily and Weekly Journals. Chicago, IL: Inland Printer Company.
15.
CarpenterDP (2001) The Forging of Bureaucratic Autonomy: Reputations, Networks, and Policy Innovation in Executive Agencies, 1862–1928. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
16.
CarrCFStevensFE (1931) Modern Journalism; A Complete Guide to the Newspaper Craft. New York: Sir I Pitman and Sons.
17.
ChristiansCGFerreJPFacklerM (1993) Good News: Social Ethics and the Press. New York: Oxford University Press.
18.
ChristiansCGGlasserTLMcQuailDNordenstrengKWhiteRA (2009) Normative Theories of the Media: Journalism in Democratic Societies. Urbana: University of Illinois Press.
19.
ClaussenDS (2004) Anti-intellectualism in American Media: Magazines and Higher Education. New York: P Lang.
20.
CraftSHeimK (2008) Transparency in journalism: Meanings, merits, and risks. In: WilkinsLChristiansCG (eds) The Handbook of Mass Media Ethics. New York: Routledge, pp. 217–228.
21.
CrenshawO (1969) General Lee’s College; The Rise and Growth of Washington and Lee University. New York: Random House.
22.
DouglasA (1995) Terrible Honesty: Mongrel Manhattan in the 1920s, 1st edn.New York: Farrar, Straus, and Giroux.
23.
ElliotD (2008) Essential shared values and 21st century journalism. In: WilkinsLChristiansCG (eds) The Handbook of Mass Media Ethics. New York: Routledge, pp. 28–39.
24.
EvensenBJ (2002) Objectivity. In: SloanWDParcellLM (eds) American Journalism: History, Principles, Practices. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, pp. vi, 378.
25.
FossSK (2004) Rhetorical Criticism: Exploration and Practice, 3rd edn.Long Grove, IL: Waveland Press.
26.
FowlerNC (1913) The Handbook of Journalism: All about Newspaper Work; Facts and Information of Vital Moment to the Journalist and to All Who Would Enter this Calling. New York: Sully and Kleinteich.
27.
FriedmanLM (2005) A History of American Law, 3rd edn.New York: Simon & Schuster.
28.
GantSE (2007) We’re All Journalists Now: The Transformation of the Press and Reshaping of the Law in the Internet Age. New York: Free Press.
29.
HallS (1980) Culture, Media, Language: Working Papers in Cultural Studies, 1972–79. London: Hutchinson.
30.
HallS (1982) The rediscovery of ‘ideology’: The return of the ‘repressed’ in media studies. In: GurevitchM (ed.) Culture, Society, and the Media. New York: Methuen.
31.
HarringtonHFFrankenbergTT (1924) Essentials in Journalism. Boston: Ginn.
32.
HarwoodD (1927) Getting and Writing News. New York: George H Doran.
33.
HeilbronerRL (1993) The Making of Economic Society, 9th edn.Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
34.
HemstreetC (1901) Reporting for the Newspapers. New York: A Wessels.
35.
HydeGM (1912) Newspaper Reporting and Correspondence; A Manual for Reporters, Correspondents, and Students of Newspaper Writing. New York: D Appleton.
36.
IorioSH (2004) Qualitative method journalism. In: IorioSH (ed.) Qualitative Research in Journalism: Taking it to the Streets. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, pp. 3–20.
37.
KaplanRL (2002) Politics and the American Press: The Rise of Objectivity, 1865–1920. New York: Cambridge University Press.
38.
KeelerJDBrownWTarpleyD (2002) Ethics. In: SloanWDParcellLM (eds) American Journalism: History, Principles, Practices. Jefferson, NC: McFarland, pp. 44–54.
39.
KuhnTS (1970) The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, 2nd edn.Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
40.
LippmannW (1922) Public Opinion. New York: Harcourt Brace.
41.
MacCarthyJP (1906) The Newspaper Worker: Designed for All Who Write, but especially Addressed to the Reporter Who May Have only a Vague Notion of the Aims, Scope and Requirements of his Profession. New York: The Press Guild.
42.
MacDougallCD (1932) A College Course in Reporting for Beginners. New York: Macmillan.
43.
MarchandR (1998) Creating the Corporate Soul: The Rise of Public Relations and Corporate Imagery in American Big Business. Berkeley: University of California Press.
44.
MerrimanLM (1941) Between Deadlines: A Realistic Study of Journalism. Chicago, IL: Sanborn.
45.
MetcalfHJ (1927) The What, Where and How of News Writing. Ames, IA: Agricultural Extension Service.
46.
MeyerJWRowanB (1991) Institutionalized organizations: Formal structure as myth and ceremony. In: PowellWWDiMaggioP (eds) The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press, pp. 41–62.
47.
MindichDTZ (1998) Just the Facts: How ‘Objectivity’ Came to Define American Journalism. New York: New York University Press.
48.
MirandoJA (1992) Journalism by the Book: An Interpretative Analysis of News Writing and Reporting Textbooks, 1867–1987. Unpublished Dissertation, University of Southern Mississippi.
49.
MirandoJA (2001) Embracing objectivity early on: Journalism textbooks of the 1800s. Journal of Mass Media Ethics16(1): 23–32.
50.
MurphyWR (1914) Essentials in news-writing. The Editor38(12): 420–421.
51.
O’DellDF (1935) The History of Journalism Education in the United States. New York: Teachers College, Columbia University.
52.
OngWJ (1991) Orality and Literacy: The Technologizing of the Word. London: Routledge.
53.
ParsonsC (2007) How to Map Arguments in Political Science. New York: Oxford Press.
54.
PasleyJL (2001) ‘The Tyranny of Printers’: Newspaper Politics in the Early American Republic. Charlottesville: University Press of Virginia.
55.
PowellWWDiMaggioP (eds) (1991) The New Institutionalism in Organizational Analysis. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
56.
RieserAC (2003) The Chautauqua Moment: Protestants, Progressives, and the Culture of Modern Liberalism. New York: Columbia University Press.
57.
RobertsonS (1930) Introduction to Modern Journalism. New York: Prentice-Hall.
58.
RossCG (1911) The Writing of News; A Handbook with Chapters on Newspaper Correspondence and Copy Reading. New York: H Holt.
59.
SalcettiM (1995) The emergence of the reporter: Mechanization and the devaluation of editorial workers. In: HardtHBrennenB (eds) Newsworkers: Toward a History of the Rank and File. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press, pp. 48–74.
60.
SchillerD (1981) Objectivity and the News: The Public and the Rise of Commercial Journalism. Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press.
61.
SchudsonM (1978) Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers. New York: Basic Books.
62.
SchudsonM (2001) The objectivity norm in American journalism. Journalism2(2): 149–170.
63.
SeitzDC (1916) Training for the Newspaper Trade. Philadelphia: JB Lippincott.
64.
SewellWHJr (1992) A theory of structure: Duality, agency, and transformation. American Journal of Sociology98(1): 1–29.
65.
ShawDL (1967) News bias and the telegraph: A study of historical change. Journalism Quarterly45(1): 3–12.
66.
ShumanEL (1894) Steps into Journalism: Helps and Hints for Young Writers. Evanston, IL: Correspondence School of Journalism.
67.
SinclairU (1920) The Brass Check: A Study of American Journalism. Pasadena, CA: The author.
68.
SingerJB (2010) Norms and the network: Journalistic ethics in a shared media space. In: MeyersC (ed.) Journalism Ethics: A Philosophical Approach. New York: Oxford University Press, pp.117–129.
69.
SloanWD (1990) Makers of the Media Mind: Journalism Educators and their Ideas. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
70.
StensaasHS (1987) Development of the objectivity ethic in US daily newspapers. Journal of Mass Media Ethics2(1): 50–60.
71.
SuttonAA (1968) Education for Journalism in the United States from its Beginning to 1940. New York: AMS Press.
72.
Van DijkTA (1980) Text and Context: Explorations in the Semantics and Pragmatics of Discourse, 1st paperback edn. London: Longman.
73.
VeyseyLR (1965) The Emergence of the American University. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
74.
VosTP (2010) A cultural explanation for early broadcast policy: Professionalism, voluntarism, and US Broadcast Networks. Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media54(2): 179–193.
75.
WardSJA (2004) The Invention of Journalism Ethics: The Path to Objectivity and Beyond. Montreal: McGill-Queen’s University Press.
76.
WardSJA (2008) Truth and objectivity. In: WilkinsLChristiansCG (eds) The Handbook of Mass Media Ethics. New York: Routledge, pp. 71–83.
77.
WestburyI (1985) Textbooks, history of. In: HusenTPostlethwaiteMBennettTCurranJWoolacottJ (eds) International Encyclopedia of Education Research and Studies. New York: Pergamon Press, p. 5235.
78.
WilliamsWMartinFL (1924) The Practice of Journalism; A Treatise on Newspaper-Making. Columbia, MO: The Missouri Book Company.
79.
WinfieldBH (ed.) (2008) Journalism 1908: Birth of a Profession. Columbia: University of Missouri Press.
80.
YostCS (1924) The Principles of Journalism. New York: D Appleton.
