Sage Journals: Discover world-class research

Abstract

While the connection between social networking sites (SNSs) and body image has been reported more broadly in prior literature, the link between SNSs and muscle dysmorphia (MD) is less understood. The aim of this study was to investigate the strength and nature of the relationship between MD and SNSs among men in the general population. With SNSs allowing users to view and interact with online content, this study focussed on three SNS activities: (a) viewing men’s celebrity and fashion content, (b) viewing fitness-related content and (c) the importance of received likes and comments. Young men (N = 95) completed an online questionnaire recording demographic information, SNS activities and MD symptomatology. A hierarchal regression revealed that the importance of received likes and comments significantly predicted MD symptomatology over and above demographic factors. These findings reflect a need to emphasise the interactive components of SNSs within body image literature.

Keywords

Celebrity and fashion content fitness-related content likes and comments muscle dysmorphia social networking sites young men

The number of individuals using social networking sites (SNSs) has doubled since 2017 (Dean, 2023), now reaching 4.8 billion users worldwide (Petrosyan, 2023). Young Australian adults (18–34 year olds) are among the most frequent users, with 85% using at least one SNS (Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA), 2021). Most young adults view SNSs several times per day, in fact, many view these platforms as frequently as every hour (Scott et al., 2020). Users can actively engage with the platforms by uploading imagery (i.e. photos and videos), enhancing their content with filters and image effects and providing or receiving feedback in the form of likes and comments (Bell et al., 2018; Mills et al., 2018). Likewise, users can also engage passively by observing and subscribing to imagery they want to see from other profiles (McCrory et al., 2022).

The imagery of idealised bodies are commonly disseminated on SNSs as users frequently post, comment and like imagery of other users’ appearance that contributes to the development of idealised appearance standards (Fioravanti et al., 2022). The body imagery presented on SNSs is often unrealistic (Carrotte et al., 2017), which increases the risk of body dissatisfaction given the discrepancy between an individual’s perceived body image and the ideals they are exposed to (Grunewald et al., 2021). Recent meta-analyses and systematic reviews confirm this, with a consistent relationship found between viewing SNSs and greater body dissatisfaction (Fioravanti et al., 2022; Mingoia et al., 2017; Ryding and Kuss, 2019). Furthermore, conforming to body ideals depicted on SNSs is associated with appearance-enhancement behaviours (Cataldo et al., 2021), symptoms of depression, anxiety (Barnes et al., 2020; Mesce et al., 2022) and suicidality (Grunewald et al., 2021).

Body image concerns in men

SNS and body image research has predominately focussed on the relationship between these factors among women (Jerónimo and Carraça, 2022), whereas men’s body image has been underexplored. The paucity of investigation among samples of men is problematic given that in one particular study of young university adults, 68.5% of men reported having some level of body dissatisfaction, which is similar prevalence to the 66.7% of body dissatisfaction found in women (Godina et al., 2020). The mesomorphic figure, characterised by large and/or lean pectorals, arms, broad shoulders and defined abdomen, is the dominant appearance ideal in media for men (Groves et al., 2023; Gültzow et al., 2020). Furthermore, there is evidence to suggest this ideal has been increasing in size and muscularity over time to create an even more unrealistic ideal and widen the discrepancy between the ideal and what is typically achievable for the average man (Leit et al., 1999; Martenstyn et al., 2022). To attain this physique, the individual would need to commit to daily workouts (Martenstyn et al., 2023), meticulous calorie counting and supplement use (Cunningham et al., 2017), making it difficult to attain. The difficulty of achieving the mesomorphic figure through these means alone can lead men to engage in dangerous behaviours, such as anabolic–androgenic steroid use to increase the likelihood of achieving the muscular ideal (Chatzopoulou et al., 2020). Such means pose additional physical health risks, such as cardiovascular and coronary artery disease (Baggish et al., 2017), as well as a mental health risk in developing symptoms of muscle dysmorphia (MD).

Muscle dysmorphia

MD is a specifier of body dysmorphic disorder, defined as a severe preoccupation that one’s body is perceived as insufficiently muscular or lean (American Psychiatric Association (APA), 2013). This pathological belief is often linked to negative and excessive evaluation of the body (Cafri et al., 2008; Martenstyn et al., 2022), and impairment of daily functioning, such as prioritising workout routines over social engagement (Cunningham et al., 2017). In addition, individuals living with MD show an extreme drive to reach their body ideal through compulsive exercising and meticulous dieting (Martenstyn et al., 2023). MD is more prevalent among men than other genders (Ganson et al., 2023a) and symptomatology typically develops in the young adult period (Mitchison et al., 2022). Living with MD is also associated with further risks, such as the use of anabolic steroids (Scarth et al., 2023), eating disorder symptomatology (Nieuwoudt et al., 2015) and higher rates of suicide attempts, substance use disorder, negative mood and anxiety disorder symptoms when compared to non-MD men (Cafri et al., 2008; Pope et al., 2005).

Given the nature of the dysfunction and the setting in which the problematic behaviours typically occur, much research has been devoted to exploring MD among body-building communities as there appear to be higher rates of MD among these communities. For example, Longobardi et al. (2017) found that as many as one in four members of this community meet the diagnostic criteria for MD. However, these communities account for a minimal proportion of the broader population among men as there are only 30,000 international bodybuilders registered professionally (Lindner, 2023). Furthermore, evidence suggests that there are no significant differences in body image concerns between competitive bodybuilders and recreational strength trainers (Steele et al., 2020). Less attention has been paid towards investigating MD among broader, general population samples of men which is concerning given the prevalence of SNS use and body dissatisfaction among men more broadly. Of the few studies that have investigated general population samples, Ganson et al. (2023a) reported that 17.2% of young men are at clinical risk of diagnoses, and Mitchison et al. (2022) additionally found that 2.2% would meet the diagnosis criteria (Mitchison et al., 2022). Thus, it is likely that the presentation of MD may extend beyond samples with a formal diagnosis as well as specific body-building communities, with a much broader range of men likely being at risk for further harm and therefore suitable targets for preventive interventions to reduce such risk. With emerging prevalence rates and the continual rise of SNSs, this study aims to understand the relationship between SNS use and MD symptomatology in young men.

Theoretical background

Sociocultural theories of body image explain how pressures from the environment lead an individual to become dissatisfied with their appearance and engage in strategies to modify their appearance. The tripartite influence model is one such theory that proposes that pressures about an attractive appearance from family, peers and media lead the individual to internalise this ideal appearance as a personal standard, in which the individual compares their appearance and that of others (Thompson et al., 1999). As these processes occur, the individual develops body dissatisfaction. In particular, SNSs are a pressing sociocultural influence on body image among young people given that these media platforms are typically much more salient to the average young adult relative to traditional forms of media, with daily digital media consumption predicted to be double that of traditional media consumption by 2025 (Statista, 2024). Furthermore, in addition to disseminating media norms, SNSs collectively embody many of the characteristics of other sociocultural pressures in an easily accessible format (e.g. broader peer and family influence can also be exerted via social media in addition to media norms).

To further understand the pressure individuals experience from SNSs in promoting an ideal appearance that must be adhered to, we turn to cultivation theory. Cultivation theory (Gerbner and Gross, 1976; Stein et al., 2021) proposes that the repetition of observing body ideals in media persuades viewers to believe that the imagery is the societal standard, cultivating users’ beliefs and behaviours over time. There is longitudinal evidence to support this, with the frequency of SNS use being correlated with increased body dissatisfaction in participants over subsequent periods (De Vries et al., 2016).

In addition, body ideals on SNSs are often accompanied by a substantial number of likes and comments (Bell et al., 2018; Gültzow et al., 2020) which may be perceived as validating and accepting the depicted body ideal (Scissors et al., 2016). Thus, repeated exposure to the ideal on SNSs, which is consistently reinforced through feedback, contributes to the cultivated image. However, cultivation theory was originally conceptualised for viewing traditional forms of media (e.g. television; Gerbner and Gross, 1976), which may limit the understanding of active components of SNSs, such as the motives behind certain activities. Uses and gratification theory (Rodgers et al., 2021; Rubin, 2009) can address this gap and supports our proposition by explaining that individuals will interact with SNSs based on how it provides specific needs to the user. Some studies have demonstrated that the importance and motivation to use SNSs are correlated with lower body shape satisfaction in adolescence (Jarman et al., 2021) and a higher drive for muscularity in young men (Seekis et al., 2021). When collectively integrating the evidence from these theories, men will passively consume content relating to muscularity, which shapes ideas of beauty (Stein et al., 2021) and simultaneously the interactive role provides an incentive for users to interact on platforms relating to appearance-based imagery (Rodgers et al., 2021). This aligns with the experiences of young men who regularly weightlift, articulating how body concerns are reinforced by the pressures of SNSs, due to the exposed body ideals and the desire to get likes and comments (Piatkowski et al., 2020).

The relationship between SNS use and MD

The pressure to attain muscular ideals portrayed in media has been linked to MD symptomatology (Susanto et al., 2020) and outcomes closely related to MD (Ryding and Kuss, 2019; Seekis et al., 2021). Studies that have investigated SNSs and MD directly have suggested greater MD symptomatology is associated with compulsive SNS use (Imperatori et al., 2022) and spending more time on SNSs than any other type of digital screen use (Ganson et al., 2023b). More specifically, Schoenenberg and Martin (2020) found a positive association between men’s Instagram use with both passive and interactive activities (i.e. viewing fitness imagery, checking feedback on uploaded content) and MD symptomatology.

Importantly, the relationship between SNS use and body image outcomes may vary depending on the type of SNS use that is measured. Previous body image literature typically measured the total time spent on SNSs (Ryding and Kuss, 2019; Saiphoo and Vahedi, 2019). However, this is more appropriate for the passive consumption of traditional media and overlooks the interactive engagement of personalised content. Likewise, Saiphoo and Vahedi (2019) reviewed 56 articles and found larger effect sizes of behavioural and cognitive facets in body image disturbances among studies that measured engagement with SNS activities, compared to studies measuring total time spent on SNS (Saiphoo and Vahedi, 2019). Consequently, the measurement of the total time spent captures exposure to all content on SNSs including non-body ideal content, which has led authors advocating for future research to investigate different behavioural and appearance-based activities (Cataldo et al., 2021; Harriger et al., 2022; Vandenbosch et al., 2022). One such approach is that of Seekis et al. (2021) who explored three key features of SNSs: the frequency of viewing men’s celebrity and fashion sites, the importance of received online likes and comments, and the frequency of viewing fitness-related content. They found that these activities correlated with a higher drive for muscularity and body surveillance in young Australian men (Seekis et al., 2021). This implies that how someone uses SNSs may better predict body image outcomes than the total time they spend using the platform.

Viewing men’s celebrity and fashion content

Messages about the importance and attractiveness of a mesomorphic body are often promulgated through online celebrity and fashion content, in addition to attire and grooming advertisements directed at men (Dixon, 2023; Flannery et al., 2020; Hancock and Karaminas, 2014). This process occurs on SNSs as some of the most followed profiles of men (e.g. those with more than 100 million followers) are those of celebrities who post imagery of their muscular and lean features in association with their lifestyle or fashion-related products they endorse. While prior research has not yet explored the association between celebrity and fashion imagery on SNSs and MD, findings from related studies suggest that a higher frequency of viewing this content is linked with a greater desire to attain muscularity, body surveillance behaviours and body dissatisfaction (Lee and Lee, 2019, 2020; Seekis et al., 2021; Strubel and Petrie, 2016). Similarly, experimental studies found increases in body dissatisfaction after young men viewed shirtless mesomorphic advertisements (Baird and Grieve, 2006). With such unrealistic standards, it may prompt vulnerable young men to attempt to achieve the physiques that they are exposed to. However, not all findings to date have been consistent, as Ho et al. (2016) found celebrity imagery became a non-significant predictor of body dissatisfaction when controlling for demographic variables. In addition, Tiggemann and Anderberg (2020) found no significant difference in body dissatisfaction before and after exposure to mesomorphic bodies wearing fashion attire. The mixed findings from prior research suggest further research is needed to determine whether viewing men’s celebrity and fashion content is associated with MD or whether other SNS use variables may better predict MD.

Importance of likes and comments received online

SNSs are interactive platforms that encourage users to add feedback to appearance-based content (i.e. likes and comments) which is then publicly visible under the attached imagery. SNS feedback signifies validation and an acceptance of uploaded content and conversely, low levels of feedback represent a social rejection of users’ imagery (Scissors et al., 2016). This reflects the acceptance of body ideals in which the SNS posts with large numbers of likes and comments are those which commonly adhere to unrealistic body ideals (Chatzopoulou et al., 2020; Gültzow et al., 2020). Past research has suggested that a higher frequency of men receiving verbal appearance-related commentary was associated with body-related issues (Nowell and Ricciardelli, 2008; Rodgers et al., 2009; Schuster et al., 2013). Piatkowski et al. (2020) found that young men who receive likes and comments on their SNS imagery are motivated to continue engaging in muscle-building behaviours. In addition to this, some studies have highlighted that a user’s investment in the SNS feedback they receive is important in explaining body image issues (Butkowski et al., 2019; Tiggemann et al., 2018). This may imply that the significance of appearance-based feedback lies in how SNS users place importance on receiving likes and comments, rather than the frequency of feedback (Seekis et al., 2021).

Viewing men’s fitness-related content

SNS users commonly view and post fitness-related content, which includes sport athletes, exercise routines, body transformations and diet information (Klier et al., 2022). Fitness-related hashtags, a feature that allows users to search and discover content (e.g. fitspiration), are one of the many ways an SNS user can easily filter and find content illustrated with workouts, muscle-promoting and body transformation imagery (Tiggemann and Zaccardo, 2018). However, despite this content being promoted as health-oriented (Raggatt et al., 2018), exposure to the content can be harmful as the physiques are typically unrealistic and hyper-muscular (Carrotte et al., 2017). Young men who are invested in their appearance and are actively viewing fitness-related content, report MD symptomatology, such as social isolation by prioritising their workout schedule over social events, exercising when injured and are more prone to anabolic steroid use (Chatzopoulou et al., 2020). This finding could be linked to how fitness-related content encourages body progress imagery that emulates body surveillance behaviours, endorses obsessive exercising, preoccupation with self-appearance and promotes thorough calorie counting (Cataldo et al., 2021). In addition, previous studies have demonstrated how higher frequencies of viewing fitspiration content were associated with a greater drive for muscularity (Fatt et al., 2019; Seekis et al., 2021) and MD symptomatology (Schoenenberg and Martin, 2020).

The current study

Firstly, prior literature has supported that specific SNS activities are related to greater body image disturbance in men (Seekis et al., 2021). However, whether these activities are connected to MD symptomatology has received less attention. Therefore, the primary aim of the present study was to determine whether three SNS activities: viewing men’s celebrity and fashion sites, the importance of received online likes and comments and viewing men’s fitness-related content, are associated with MD symptomatology in young men. We hypothesised that:

Hypothesis 1a (H1a). The frequency of viewing men’s celebrity and fashion content on SNSs would be significantly positively associated with MD symptomatology.

Hypothesis 1b (H1b). The importance of received likes and comments on SNSs would be significantly positively associated with MD symptomatology.

Hypothesis 1c (H1c). The frequency of viewing men’s fitness-related content on SNSs would be significantly positively associated with MD symptomatology.

Second, if relationships are evident between specific SNS activities and MD symptomatology, then it is important to understand the strength and nature of the relationships to inform future intervention design. For example, if the way in which an individual uses SNSs is in fact more important than the time they spend using the platform, would have implications for addressing the most appropriate risk factors associated with MD. Given the paucity of research to date that has investigated this, we also aimed to determine whether these SNS activities predict MD symptomatology, over and above demographic variables commonly associated with body image outcomes in previous literature (i.e. age, sexual orientation, body mass index [BMI] and the weekly number of workout sessions; Cafri et al., 2008; Martenstyn et al., 2023; Mitchison et al., 2022) and general time spent on SNS. To achieve this, the following hypothesis was proposed:

Hypothesis 2 (H2). SNS activities would predict MD symptomatology, over and above, age, sexual orientation, BMI, weekly number of workout sessions and total time spent using SNSs.

Method

Participants and procedure

The study was approved by the < name removed for blind review > Human Research Ethics Committee (Protocol: 205630). Physical flyers were distributed throughout four university campuses. After contacting 20 local gyms in Adelaide, South Australia to achieve random sampling, two agreed to share the poster at their gym. Paid social media advertisements were active for 21 days in August and displayed on both Facebook and Instagram. The online and physical advertisement targeted Australian men to complete a survey related to social media activities and body image. Physical posters at the gym were slightly altered, asking for ‘gym members’ Participants were required to be aged between 18 and 34 to be included in the present study as MD symptomatology has been shown to manifest in this age demographic (Tod et al., 2016) and additionally are studied as the most frequent users of SNSs (ACMA, 2021). To indicate whether participants were active SNS users, they must have used at least one type of SNS application (i.e. Instagram, TikTok) once in the past week. Participants with a previous or current diagnosis and/or treatment of either; body dysmorphic disorder, with or without MD specifier, obsessive-compulsive disorder and/or any eating disorder diagnoses (i.e. anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, binge eating disorder, eating disorder not otherwise specified) were excluded from the study to investigate the associations of SNS activities and MD symptomatology within a general population sample.

The advertisements and posters led potential participants to an online information sheet hosted on Qualtrics followed by an informed consent item. Participants were then directed to the online survey which took approximately 10 minutes to complete. To eliminate bots answering in the survey, responses were removed if it was completed in under 3 minutes as this was deemed the minimum amount of time required to accurately read, reflect upon and respond to the items in a meaningful manner. After the survey was completed, participants were provided with the contact details of free crisis support hotlines in the event they experienced any distress while completing the survey. Finally, participants were offered the opportunity to enter a draw to win one of four US$50 gift vouchers from an Australian department store chain. All survey responses were stored separately from the contact details for the gift card to maintain confidentiality.

A total of 139 participants commenced the survey, with 44 of those responses being removed due to potential bots or incomplete responses. The final sample consisted of 95 Australian men aged between 18 and 34 (M = 27.2, SD = 4.45). This sample size was greater than the G*Power3 software calculations of 77 participants (Faul et al., 2007), which was considered needed to identify medium effect size (0.5) and appropriate power (0.80). Most men identified as cisgender adults (n = 91, 95.8%). Just over half of the participants reported their sexual orientation as heterosexual (n = 56, 58.9%) and the majority culturally identified as Australian (n = 66, 69.5%; see Table 1).

Table 1.

Sociodemographic characteristics of gender, sexual orientation and ethnicity in the sample.

Sample characteristics	N	%
Gender
Men (cis)	91	95.8
Men (transgender)	4	4.2
Sexual orientation
Heterosexual	56	58.9
Gay	19	20
Bisexual	10	10.5
Pansexual	8	8.4
Unsure/questioning	2	2.1
Ethnicity
Australian	66	69.5
Asian	16	16.8
Indian	7	7.4
European	3	3.2
Did not answer	3	3.2
MDDI scores ‘at-risk’ cut-off (> 39)	18	19

N = 95. MDDI: muscle dysmorphic disorder inventory.

Measures

Demographic information

Participants were asked to indicate their age (in years), gender, ethnicity and sexual orientation. Weekly fitness was measured by the number of sessions of individual sport or fitness (which includes weight training) participants performed per week. Participants also reported their weight (in kg) and height (in cm) to determine BMI.

Total time spent using SNSs

Participants were asked to indicate the average number of minutes spent using SNSs per day. This is consistent with Saiphoo and Vahedi’s (2019) review of prior studies that used a single item to assess the total time spent on SNS.

Frequency of viewing celebrity and fashion content

The current study used the ‘Appearance-related SNS measures’ designed by Seekis et al. (2021) to assess three SNS activities. This measure was implemented as it focusses on specific SNS activities, which researchers have called for (Vandenbosch et al., 2022) and highlights three common behaviours SNS users typically engage in. The first was measured with five items on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (daily) which assesses the frequency of following and viewing men’s celebrity and fashion imagery on SNSs. Each question began with the phrase ‘I use my SNS to . . .’ followed by different statements, such as ‘follow male celebrities (e.g. actors, singers, models)’. The statements were slightly adapted, such as the word ‘read’ which was changed to ‘watch or view’ to capture the effect of imagery rather than text. Scores on this scale range from 5 to 25, with a higher score indicating more frequent engagement with celebrity and fashion content on SNSs. Seekis et al. (2021) reported excellent internal consistency (α = .91) for scores on this measure. In the present study, internal consistency was considered good (α = .81).

The importance of received likes and comments

This was measured with six items developed by Seekis et al. (2021) on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (not at all important) to 5 (extremely important). This measure assessed the importance placed on likes and comments participants receive from friends, family, peers or strangers. All six statements included ‘When using your SNS, how important are . . .’ followed by examples, such as, ‘the comments you receive from peers on photos of yourself?’ and ‘the number of likes you receive from strangers, or followers you don’t know, on photos of yourself?’ Scores on this scale ranged from 5 to 30, with a higher score reflecting the greater importance of likes and comments on SNSs. Seekis et al. (2021) reported good internal consistency for scores on this measure (α = .85). Internal consistency in the present study was also considered good (α = .86).

Frequency of viewing fitness-related content

Consistent with Seekis et al. (2021) study, this was measured with five items on a 5-point Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (daily). This scale measured the frequency of fitness and sport-related imagery. All items contained a sentence stem of ‘I use my SNS to . . .’ followed by statements, such as ‘follow male sports stars or athletes’. Statements in items including the word ‘read’ were changed to ‘watch or view’ to capture the effect of imagery rather than text. Scores on this scale ranged from 5 to 25, with a higher score indicating more frequent engagement in fitspiration content. Seekis et al. (2021) reported good internal consistency for scores on this measure (α = .87). The internal consistency of the present study was considered excellent (α = .92).

Muscle dysmorphic disorder inventory

MD symptomatology was measured with the 13-item muscle dysmorphic disorder inventory (MDDI) scale (Hildebrandt et al., 2004). Responses range from 1 (never) to 5 (always), with a total score calculated between 13 and 65, and larger scores indicating greater MD symptomatology. A score of > 39 indicates a risk of MD, which has been proposed in a previous study (Halioua et al., 2022). An example item is ‘I miss opportunities to meet new people because of my workout schedule’. Total MDDI scores also show good internal consistency (α = .81), excellent re-test reliability (r = .87) and good congruent and divergent validity (Hildebrandt et al., 2004). In the present study, internal consistency for scores on this measure was good (α = .80).

Data analysis

Data were entered into SPSS v27 to screen for assumptions and analysis. To obtain statistical power for the sexual orientation predictor, non-heterosexual participants were grouped (i.e. gay, bisexual, pansexual and unsure), which created a group of similar size to the heterosexual group. As per the work of Weir and Jan (2023), BMI was calculated by weight (kg) and height (cm); weight (kg)/(height [m])². The assumptions of a hierarchical regression model were tested, with a dummy regression used to test various assumptions checking multivariate outliers, homoscedasticity, standardised residuals and independent errors. One multivariate outlier was removed from the analysis, according to the chi-square cut-off table (Brereton, 2015). Residual errors were normally distributed and the assumption of homoscedasticity of residuals showed no linear relationship. There were no violations of multicollinearity and influential cases.

Results

Participants reported using SNSs for more than 2 hours per day (M = 124.36, SD = 78.51). Participants engaged in an average of three workout sessions per week (M = 3.09, SD = 2.11) and the average reported BMI was considered overweight (M = 25.3, SD = 3.85; i.e. overweight BMI = 25–29.9 kg/m²). Scores above 39 on the MDDI indicate an individual is at risk of developing MD, with a total of 19% (n = 18) of the participants in the present study scoring above this value. See Table 2 for all means and standard deviations of predictors.

Table 2.

Zero-order correlations of sociodemographic characteristics, social networking site activities and muscle dysmorphia symptomatology.

Variable	1	2	3	4	5	6	7	8	9
M	27.2	0.41	3.09	25.3	124.36	10.02	12.02	13.08	30.51
SD	4.45	0.49	2.11	3.85	78.51	3.62	4.87	5.65	8.64
1. Age	–	.13	–.20^*	.85	–.11	.10	.21^*	–.16	.80
2. Sexual orientation		–	–.10	.16	.24^**	.12	.09	–.13	.24^*
3. Weekly fitness			–	.86	–.14	.17	–.03	.51^***	.26^*
4. BMI				–	.41	.16	.21^*	.14	.07
5. Daily SNS use					–	.12	.06	–.04	–.02
6. Celebrity and fashion						–	.29^**	.53^***	.39^***
7. Likes and comments							–	.16	.31^**
8. Fitness content								–	.35^***
9. MDDI									–

Weekly fitness: number of workout sessions in a week; celebrity and fashion: frequency of celebrity and fashion content; likes and comments: important of likes and comments received; fitness content: frequency of fitness-related content. Sexual orientation: heterosexual = 0, non-heterosexual (gay, bisexual, pansexual, unsure) = 1. SD: standard deviation; BMI: body mass index; SNS: social networking site; MDDI: muscle dysmorphic disorder inventory.

p < .05; ^**p < .01; ^***p < .001.

Correlational analysis

Zero-order correlations were analysed to test H1a, b and c (see Table 2). As predicted, total MDDI scores were significantly and positively correlated with the frequency of celebrity and fashion content, the importance of likes and comments received, and the frequency of fitness content; all effect sizes were moderate in strength. Sexual orientation and the weekly number of fitness sessions were also positively and significantly correlated with the MDDI.

Hierarchical regression

A hierarchical regression consisting of two steps was implemented. Age, sexual orientation, BMI, the weekly number of workout sessions and total daily minutes using SNSs were entered in step 1 of the regression model, which described 14.7% of the variance, R = .147, F(5, 89) = 3.062, p = .13. When SNS activities were added to the model (step 2), these collectively explained an additional 16.1% variance, R² = .161, F(3, 86) = 6.658, p ⩽ .001, over and above step 1 (see Table 3). The importance of likes and comments was a significant predictor of total MDDI scores (β = .23, p = .023). Celebrity and fashion content (β = .18, p = 0.111) and fitness-related content (β = .18, p = .165) did not significantly predict MDDI scores. Sexual orientation remained significant when the SNS activities were added to the second step of the model (β = .26, p = .01).

Table 3.

Hierarchical regression model for SNS activities and total MDDI scores.

Variables	Step 1					Step 2
	B	SE β	Standardised β	95% CI		B	SE β	Standardised β	95% CI
	B	SE β	Standardised β	LL	UL	B	SE β	Standardised β	LL	UL
Age	0.20	0.20	0.10	–0.20	0.59	0.08	0.19	0.04	–0.30	0.46
Sexual orientation^a	4.56	1.81	0.26^*	0.97	8.15	4.60	1.69	0.26^**	1.25	7.96
Weekly fitness	1.21	0.42	0.30^**	0.39	2.04	0.70	0.44	0.17	–0.18	1.57
BMI	–0.001	0.23	–0.001	–0.45	0.45	–0.19	0.21	–0.09	–0.61	0.23
Daily SNS	–0.003	0.11	–0.03	–0.03	0.02	–0.01	0.01	–0.08	–0.03	0.01
C&F						0.44	0.27	0.18	–0.10	0.98
ILC						0.40	0.17	0.23^*	0.06	0.74
FC						0.27	0.19	0.18	–0.11	0.66
R ²	.147					.308
R² change						.161
F of change in R²	3.062					6.658
Sig. F change	.13					<.001

Dependent variable: muscle dysmorphia symptomatology; weekly fitness: number of workout sessions in a week. SE: standard error; CI: confidence interval; BMI: body mass index; SNS: social networking sites; C&F: frequency of celebrity and fashion content; ILC: importance of likes and comments received; FC: frequency of fitness-related content; MDDI = muscle dysmorphic disorder inventory.

Heterosexual = 0, non-heterosexual = 1 (gay, bisexual, pansexual, unsure/questioning).

p < .05; ^**p < .01.

Discussion

The present study explored the strength and nature of the relationship between SNS activities and MD symptomatology. We predicted the frequency of celebrity and fashion content, the importance of received likes and comments, and the frequency of fitness-related content would positively correlate with MD symptomatology and found these three hypotheses were supported. We then aimed to investigate whether these specific SNS activities predicted MD symptomatology over and above other known associates. It was discovered that the importance of received likes and comments was a significant predictor, while the frequency of celebrity and fashion content, and fitness-related content were not.

The importance of identifying an association between receiving likes and comments on SNSs and MD symptomatology supports the growing evidence that appearance-based feedback is connected to greater body image disturbance in men (Nowell and Ricciardelli, 2008; Schuster et al., 2013; Seekis et al., 2021). In addition, this aligns more broadly among body image research, as greater investment in receiving feedback on user’s SNS profiles has shown to be associated with appearance comparisons (Tiggemann et al., 2018) and body surveillance behaviours (Butkowski et al., 2019). This is consistent with sociocultural theories of body image, such as the tripartite influence model (Thompson et al., 1999) which proposes that appearance pressures from media, which in the case of SNSs, may also encapsulate likes and comments from friends and family. Furthermore, this can lead to body dissatisfaction through internalising an ideal body and appearance comparisons, two processes that are facilitated by quantifiable metrics on SNSs in the number of likes and comments posts receive. Receiving likes and comments on content that a user posts encapsulates societal praise (Scissors et al., 2016) and consequently, online feedback may be reflective of the reassurance-seeking and body surveillance behaviours associated with MD symptomatology (Cunningham et al., 2017), reinforcing their preoccupation.

Furthermore, the importance of receiving likes and comments was a significant predictor in the regression model when controlling for sociodemographic variables (age, sexual orientation, BMI, fitness engagement) and total time spent on SNSs. Even though sociodemographic variables have been used to identify associations to MD (Ganson et al., 2023a; Martenstyn et al., 2023), this novel finding implies SNS feedback may be an additional risk factor worthy of further attention. This proposition is further supported by Nowell and Ricciardelli (2008) who found appearance-based feedback predicted a higher drive for muscularity even when controlling for demographic variables. Within the context of uses and gratification theory, these findings indicate that SNS use may be fuelled by the internal motivations of the individual (Rubin, 2009). This process may also be reinforced via neurobiological mechanisms due to the gamification of SNSs. Sherman et al. (2016) conducted a study in which participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) while viewing SNS photos and they found that participants were more likely to like photos that were assigned more likes from peers and viewing photos with more likes was associated with greater brain activity in areas involved in reward processing, social cognition, imitation and attention. This suggests that the social and interactive aspects of SNSs could be an important factor in the development and maintenance of body image issues, which could include MD.

The significant and positive correlation between the frequency of celebrity and fashion content and MD symptomatology supports previous literature, that viewing these well-known figures can be related to men’s body image outcomes (Baird and Grieve, 2006; Lee and Lee, 2019, 2020; Seekis et al., 2021; Strubel and Petrie, 2016). In Western culture, men’s mesomorphic standards are often associated with high-profile celebrities (Flannery et al., 2020) and models (Hancock and Karaminas, 2014). Men who view celebrities and models, whether directly through selectively following their posts or indirectly via exposure to popular posts they feature in, may interpret their mesomorphic physiques as the ideal standard required to achieve such success or attractiveness, which may be connected to a preoccupation with muscularity. However, celebrity and fashion content was not a significant predictor of MD when sociodemographic variables and total time spent on SNSs were controlled for in the present study. Ho et al. (2016) reported a similar finding that viewing celebrity content on SNSs was not a significant predictor for a drive for muscularity and body dissatisfaction when controlling for BMI and age. This suggests the nature of this relationship may be different than initially proposed in the current study. For example, celebrity or fashion imagery receives a high quantity of likes and comments (Dixon, 2023) and therefore frequent viewing of this imagery may inform contingencies of receiving likes and comments, which could lead men to body image disturbances to meet such conditions of worth. Therefore, future research could explore whether the pathways between SNS activities and MD are more complex, such that exposure to specific content may lead to a greater importance of SNS feedback, which then leads to negative body image outcomes, such as MD. This seems plausible considering celebrity and fashion measures correlated with both the importance of likes and comments, and MD symptomatology (see Table 2). Another possibility for the null findings could be that celebrity beauty ideals of men include other standards beyond muscularity, such as a strong hairline and tall height, which men have reported dissatisfaction towards (Foster and Baker, 2022; Tiggemann et al., 2008). Therefore, celebrity and fashion content may trigger a preoccupation with body image, however, men may additionally be focussing on other body and facial beauty standards within this content and, thus, the strength of the relationship between SNS activity and MD symptomatology may be reduced.

The frequency of viewing fitness-related content was significant and positively associated with MD symptomatology. This finding aligns with previous research on MD (Schoenenberg and Martin, 2020) and the drive to gain muscularity (Fatt et al., 2019; Klier et al., 2022; Seekis et al., 2021). However, as was the case with celebrity and fashion content, this predictor was non-significant in the regression model, when assessed over and above sociodemographic variables and total time spent on SNSs. Thus, some men may enjoy viewing fitness-related content for their workout routines; however, may lack obsessiveness or preoccupation about their muscularity. This challenges cultivation theory (Gerbner and Gross, 1976), that consistent exposure to muscular ideals may lead to changes in values and behaviours to achieve the muscular ideal. One explanation could be that while some men frequently view fitspiration content, they may select imagery that aligns with their fitness-related goals (Easton et al., 2018), thus filtering unrealistic mesomorphic imagery. Considering users can personalise what they see on SNSs (McCrory et al., 2022), the ability to critically analyse what is considered realistic may explain this finding, whereas an inability to critically process messages on SNSs may exacerbate body image because there is a distinct lack of control over the quality and accessibility of information provided online (Jeong et al., 2012). In addition, it is important to acknowledge that individual differences in personality traits could be another factor that affected the null finding. Previous research has suggested that perfectionism can mediate the relationship between SNS use and body dysmorphic disorder (Sulistyo et al., 2022), such that, using SNSs can lead to increased perfectionism, and this more rigid manner of viewing one’s appearance and the personal standards set for beauty could, in turn, lead to the symptomatology of body dysmorphic disorder.

Strengths and limitations

The primary strength of the current study was the investigation of SNS activities rather than the total time spent on SNS. As advocated in other research (Vandenbosch et al., 2022), we have provided evidence that it is necessary to analyse the nuances of SNSs, and hence, this should be a standard for future research to apply. Another strength lies in recruiting a general population rather than a clinical sample, as the extent of MD symptomatology is currently under-investigated outside of clinical or professional bodybuilder samples (Ganson et al., 2023a; Mitchison et al., 2022). Understanding the nature of the relationships among men in the general population is important as the majority of young men have unlimited access to SNSs (Scott et al., 2020) and this study identified that the importance of likes received on SNSs predicts MD symptomatology.

In light of our study’s strengths, there are also limitations to consider when interpreting the present study’s findings. First, this study was cross-sectional and analysed correlational data. While it is an appropriate foundation to use when there is a lack of experimental or longitudinal data to inform hypotheses, these data do not enable inferences of causality. Future research should aim to confirm and extend the current findings via experimental manipulation of SNS likes and comments as well as observing symptomatology effects over time in longitudinal studies. Future research could also explore potential interactions that may exist between specific types of SNS usage and workout frequency or BMI as these were not explored in the present study. Participant recruitment was purposively from the general population due to the recently reported prevalence rates in generalised community samples (Ganson et al., 2023a; Mitchison et al., 2022). However, analysing data of men clinically diagnosed with MD would be valuable to understand the associations between MD and SNSs for those who experience clinical levels of symptomatology. It is important to note that the recruitment flyer design had workout imagery and may have attracted participants interested in gym culture, therefore this sample is potentially homogeneous. Related to this, the average BMI for participants in the present study was in the overweight range; however, the BMI calculation does not take muscle mass into account and therefore we cannot confirm whether the participants were in fact overweight. Finally, the measures for the three SNS activities were selected for consistency with prior literature and were found to be reliable in prior studies (i.e. Seekis et al., 2021); however, it is recommended that further studies test the concurrent and divergent validity of these to confirm the accuracy of the measures.

Conclusion

This study contributes to the emerging evidence that a significant relationship exists between SNSs activities and MD symptomatology in young men. The results demonstrated the importance of receiving likes and comments as a meaningful predictor of MD symptomatology when controlling for sociodemographic variables. Active engagement in SNSs is a prominent feature of SNSs that are connected to body image disturbance and are worthy of further investigation in research, policy and practice. The MD research field must continue to uncover the complexities of features and activities on SNS activities to further comprehend what elements of these sites are detrimental to the body image of young men.

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-1-nms-10.1177_14614448241281827 – Supplemental material for An investigation of the relationship between social networking site activities and muscle dysmorphia in young men

Supplemental material, sj-docx-1-nms-10.1177_14614448241281827 for An investigation of the relationship between social networking site activities and muscle dysmorphia in young men by Luigi Donnarumma and John Mingoia in New Media & Society

Supplemental Material

sj-docx-2-nms-10.1177_14614448241281827 – Supplemental material for An investigation of the relationship between social networking site activities and muscle dysmorphia in young men

Supplemental material, sj-docx-2-nms-10.1177_14614448241281827 for An investigation of the relationship between social networking site activities and muscle dysmorphia in young men by Luigi Donnarumma and John Mingoia in New Media & Society

Footnotes

Funding

The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship and/or publication of this article.

ORCID iDs

Luigi Donnarumma

John Mingoia

Supplemental material

Supplemental material for this article is available online.

Author biographies

Luigi Donnarumma is a first class honours graduate from the University of South Australia. His passion and interests include men’s mental health, body image, and suicide prevention.

John Mingoia is a Lecturer in Psychology at the University of South Australia. His research interests include body image, health promotion, and disease prevention.

References

American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders: DSM-5. 5th ed. Washington, DC: APA.

Australian Communications and Media Authority (ACMA) (2021) The digital lives of younger Australians. Available at: https://www.acma.gov.au/sites/default/files/2021-05/The%20digital%20lives%20of%20younger%20Australians.pdf

Baggish

Weiner

Kanayama

, et al (2017) Cardiovascular toxicity of illicit anabolic-androgenic steroid use. Circulation 135(21): 1991–2002.

Baird

Grieve

(2006) Exposure to male models in advertisements leads to a decrease in men’s body satisfaction. North American Journal of Psychology 8(1): 115–121.

Barnes

Abhyankar

Dimova

, et al (2020) Associations between body dissatisfaction and self-reported anxiety and depression in otherwise healthy men: a systematic review and meta-analysis. PLoS One 15(2): e0229268.

Bell

Cassarly

Dunbar

(2018) Selfie-objectification: self-objectification and positive feedback (‘likes’) are associated with frequency of posting sexually objectifying self-images on social media. Body Image 26: 83–89.

Brereton

(2015) The chi squared and multinormal distributions. Journal of Chemometrics 29(1): 9–12.

Butkowski

Dixon

Weeks

(2019) Body surveillance on Instagram: examining the role of selfie feedback investment in young adult women’s body image concerns. Sex Roles 81(5–6): 385–397.

Cafri

Olivardia

Thompson

(2008) Symptom characteristics and psychiatric comorbidity among males with muscle dysmorphia. Comprehensive Psychiatry 49(4): 374–379.

10.

Carrotte

Prichard

Lim

MSC

(2017) ‘Fitspiration’ on social media: a content analysis of gendered images. Journal of Medical Internet Research 19(3): e95.

11.

Cataldo

De Luca

Giorgetti

, et al (2021) Fitspiration on social media: body-image and other psychopathological risks among young adults: a narrative review. Emerging Trends in Drugs, Addictions, and Health 1: 100010.

12.

Chatzopoulou

Filieri

Dogruyol

(2020) Instagram and body image: motivation to conform to the ‘Instabod’ and consequences on young male wellbeing. The Journal of Consumer Affairs 54(4): 1270–1297.

13.

Cunningham

Griffiths

Mitchison

, et al (2017) Muscle dysmorphia: an overview of clinical features and treatment options. Journal of Cognitive Psychotherapy 31(4): 255–271.

14.

De Vries

Peter

De Graaf

, et al (2016) Adolescents’ social network site use, peer appearance-related feedback, and body dissatisfaction: testing a mediation model. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 45(1): 211–224.

15.

Dean

(2023) Social network usage and growth statistics: how many people use social media in 2023? Available at: https://backlinko.com/social-media-users (accessed 27 March 2023).

16.

Dixon

(2023) Most followers on Instagram. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/421169/most-followers-instagram/ (accessed 3 July 2023).

17.

Easton

Morton

Tappy

, et al (2018) Young people’s experiences of viewing the fitspiration social media trend: qualitative study. Journal of Medical Internet Research 20(6): e219.

18.

Fatt

Fardouly

Rapee

(2019) Malefitspo: links between viewing fitspiration posts, muscular-ideal internalisation, appearance comparisons, body satisfaction, and exercise motivation in men. New Media & Society 21(6): 1311–1325.

19.

Faul

Erdfelder

Lang

, et al (2007) G*Power 3: a flexible statistical power analysis program for the social, behavioral, and biomedical sciences. Behavior Research Methods 39(2): 175–191.

20.

Fioravanti

Benucci

Ceragioli

, et al (2022) How the exposure to beauty ideals on social networking sites influences body image: a systematic review of experimental studies. Adolescent Research Review 7(3): 419–458.

21.

Flannery

Harris

Kenny

(2020) An exploration into the impact of social networking site (SNS) use on body image and eating behavior of physically active men. The Journal of Men’s Studies 29(1): 26–49.

22.

Foster

Baker

(2022) Muscles, makeup, and femboys: analyzing TikTok’s ‘Radical’ masculinities. Social Media + Society. Epub ahead of print 26 September. DOI: 10.1177/20563051221126040.

23.

Ganson

Hallward

Cunningham

, et al (2023a) Muscle dysmorphia symptomatology among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults. Body Image 44: 178–186.

24.

Ganson

Hallward

Rodgers

, et al (2023b) Contemporary screen use and symptoms of muscle dysmorphia among a national sample of Canadian adolescents and young adults. Eating and Weight Disorders 28(1): 10.

25.

Gerbner

Gross

(1976) Living with television: the violence profile. Journal of Communication 26(2): 172–199.

26.

Godina

Sineva

Khafizova

, et al (2020) Gender and regional differences in body image dissatisfaction in modern university students: a pilot study in two cities of eastern Europe. Collegium Antropologicum 44(1): 13–20.

27.

Groves

Ridley

Cornelissen

, et al (2023) Men’s perception of current and ideal body composition and the influence of media internalization on body judgements. Frontiers in Psychology 14: 1116686.

28.

Grunewald

Calzo

Brown

, et al (2021) Appearance-ideal internalization, body dissatisfaction, and suicidality among sexual minority men. Body Image 38: 289–294.

29.

Gültzow

Guidry

JPD

Schneider

, et al (2020) Male body image portrayals on Instagram. Cyberpsychology, Behavior, and Social Networking 23(5): 81–289.

30.

Halioua

Wyssen

Iff

, et al (2022) Association between muscle dysmorphia psychopathology and binge eating in a large at-risk cohort of men and women. Journal of Eating Disorders 10(1): 109.

31.

Hancock

Karaminas

(2014) The Joy of Pecs: representations of masculinities in fashion brand advertising. Clothing Cultures 1(3): 269–288.

32.

Harriger

Evans

Thompson

, et al (2022) The dangers of the rabbit hole: reflections on social media as a portal into a distorted world of edited bodies and eating disorder risk and the role of algorithms. Body Image 41: 292–297.

33.

Hildebrandt

Langenbucher

Schlundt

(2004) Muscularity concerns among men: development of attitudinal and perceptual measures. Body Image 1(2): 169–181.

34.

Lee

EWJ

Liao

(2016) Social network sites, friends, and celebrities: the roles of social comparison and celebrity involvement in adolescents’ body image dissatisfaction. Social Media + Society. Epub ahead of print 16 August. DOI: 10.1177/2056305116664216.

35.

Imperatori

Panno

Carbone

, et al (2022) The association between social media addiction and eating disturbances is mediated by muscle dysmorphia-related symptoms: a cross-sectional study in a sample of young adults. Eating and Weight Disorders 27(3): 1131–1140.

36.

Jarman

Marques

McLean

, et al (2021) Motivations for social media use: associations with social media engagement and body satisfaction and well-being among adolescents. Journal of Youth and Adolescence 50(12): 2279–2293.

37.

Jeong

Cho

Hwang

(2012) Media literacy interventions: a meta-analytic review. Journal of Communication 62: 454–472.

38.

Jerónimo

Carraça

(2022) Effects of fitspiration content on body image: a systematic review. Eating and Weight Disorders 27(8): 3017–3035.

39.

Klier

Rommerskirchen

Brixius

(2022) Fitspiration: a comparison of the sport-related social media usage and its impact on body image in young adults. BMC Psychology 10(1): 320.

40.

Lee

(2019) Effects of celebrities’ social media pressure on internalization and muscularity dissatisfaction among men. Journal of the Korean Society of Clothing and Textiles 43(4): 549–561.

41.

Lee

(2020) A test of the expanded tripartite dual pathway model in physically active Korean men. Sex Roles 82(11–12): 743–753.

42.

Leit

Pope

Jr Gray

(1999) Cultural expectations of muscularity in men: the evolution of playgirl centerfolds. International Journal of Eating Disorders 29(1): 90–93.

43.

Lindner

(2023) Must-know bodybuilder statistics. Available at: https://gitnux.org/bodybuilder-statistics/#:~:text=The%20International%20Federation%20of%20BodyBuilding,over%2030%2C000%20registered%20professional%20bodybuilders

44.

Longobardi

Prino

Fabris

, et al (2017) Muscle dysmorphia and psychopathology: findings from an Italian sample of male bodybuilders. Psychiatry Research 256: 231–236.

45.

McCrory

Best

Maddock

(2022) ‘It’s just one big vicious circle’: young people’s experiences of highly visual social media and their mental health. Health Education Research 37(3): 167–184.

46.

Martenstyn

Maguire

Griffiths

(2022) A qualitative investigation of the phenomenology of muscle dysmorphia: Part 1. Body Image 43: 486–503.

47.

Martenstyn

Maguire

Griffiths

(2023) A qualitative investigation of the phenomenology of muscle dysmorphia: Part 2. Body Image 44: 78–92.

48.

Mesce

Cerniglia

Cimino

(2022) Body image concerns: the impact of digital technologies and psychopathological risks in a normative sample of adolescents. Behavioral Sciences 12(8): 255.

49.

Mills

Musto

Williams

, et al (2018) ‘Selfie’ harm: effects on mood and body image in young women. Body Image 27: 86–92.

50.

Mingoia

Hutchinson

Wilson

, et al (2017) The relationship between social networking site use and the internalization of a thin ideal in females: a meta-analytic review. Frontiers in Psychology 8: 1351.

51.

Mitchison

Mond

Griffiths

, et al (2022) Prevalence of muscle dysmorphia in adolescents: findings from the EveryBODY study. Psychological Medicine 52(14): 3142–3149.

52.

Nieuwoudt

Zhou

Coutts

, et al (2015) Symptoms of muscle dysmorphia, body dysmorphic disorder, and eating disorders in a nonclinical population of adult male weightlifters in Australia. Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research 29(5): 1406–1414.

53.

Nowell

Ricciardelli

(2008) Appearance-based comments, body dissatisfaction and drive for muscularity in males. Body Image 5(4): 337–345.

54.

Petrosyan

(2023) Number of internet and social media users worldwide as of January 2023. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/617136/digital-population-worldwide/ (accessed 3 April 2023).

55.

Piatkowski

White

Hides

, et al (2020) Australia’s Adonis: understanding what motivates young men’s lifestyle choices for enhancing their appearance. Australian Psychologist 55(2): 156–168.

56.

Pope

Menard

, et al (2005) Clinical features of muscle dysmorphia among males with body dysmorphic disorder. Body Image 2(4): 395–400.

57.

Raggatt

Wright

CJC

Carrotte

, et al (2018) ‘I aspire to look and feel healthy like the posts convey’: engagement with fitness inspiration on social media and perceptions of its influence on health and wellbeing. BMC Public Health 18(1): 1002–1013.

58.

Rodgers

McLean

Gordon

, et al (2021) Development and validation of the motivations for social media use scale (MSMU) among adolescents. Adolescent Research Review 6: 425–435.

59.

Rodgers

Paxton

Chabrol

(2009) Effects of parental comments on body dissatisfaction and eating disturbance in young adults: a sociocultural model. Body Image 6(3): 171–177.

60.

Rubin

(2009) Uses and gratifications. In: Nabi

Oliver

(eds) The SAGE Handbook of Media Processes and Effects. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, pp. 147–159.

61.

Ryding

Kuss

(2019) The use of social networking sites, body image dissatisfaction, and body dysmorphic disorder: a systematic review of psychological research. Psychology of Popular Media 9(4): 412–435.

62.

Saiphoo

Vahedi

(2019) A meta-analytic review of the relationship between social media use and body image disturbance. Computers in Human Behavior 101: 259–275.

63.

Scarth

Westlye

Havnes

, et al (2023) Investigating anabolic-androgenic steroid dependence and Muscle Dysmorphia with network analysis among male weightlifters. BMC Psychiatry 23(1): 342.

64.

Schoenenberg

Martin

(2020) Relevance of Instagram and fitspiration images for muscle dysmorphia: internalization of the male beauty ideal through social media. Psychotherapeut 65: 93–100.

65.

Schuster

Negy

Tantleff-Dunn

(2013) The effects of appearance-related commentary on body dissatisfaction, eating pathology, and body change behaviors in men. Psychology of Men & Masculinity 14(1): 76–87.

66.

Scissors

Burke

Wengrovitz

(2016) What’s in a Like? Attitudes and behaviors around receiving Likes on Facebook. In: Proceedings of the 19th ACM conference on computer-supported cooperative work and social computing, San Francisco, CA, 27 February–2 March, pp. 1501–1510. New York: ACM.

67.

Scott

Canivet

Östergren

(2020) Investigating the effect of social networking site use on mental health in an 18-34 year-old general population: a cross-sectional study using the 2016 Scania Public Health Survey. BMC Public Health 20(1): 1753.

68.

Seekis

Bradley

Duffy

(2021) Social networking sites and men’s drive for muscularity: testing a revised objectification model. Psychology of Men & Masculinity 22(1): 189–200.

69.

Sherman

Payton

Hernandez

, et al (2016) The power of the like in adolescence: effects of peer influence on neural and behavioral responses to social media. Psychological Science 27(7): 1027–1035.

70.

Statista (2024) Time spent per day with digital versus traditional media in the United States from 2011 to 2025. Available at: https://www.statista.com/statistics/565628/time-spent-digital-traditional-media-usa/ (accessed 10 July 2024).

71.

Steele

Pope

, et al (2020) Is competitive body-building pathological? Survey of 984 male strength trainers. BMJ Open Sport & Exercise Medicine 6(1): e000708.

72.

Stein

Krause

Ohler

(2021) Every (Insta)gram counts? Applying cultivation theory to explore the effects of Instagram on young users’ body image. Psychology of Popular Media 10(1): 87–97.

73.

Strubel

Petrie

(2016) The clothes make the man: the relation of sociocultural factors and sexual orientation to appearance and product involvement. Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services 33: 1–7.

74.

Sulistyo

PTS

Sukamto

Ibrahim

(2022) Social media pressure and the body dysmorphic disorder tendency in women: the mediating role of perfectionism. Psikohumaniora: Jurnal Penelitian Psikologi 7(2): 137–152.

75.

Susanto

VVM

Wirawan

Griadhi

(2020) Predictor of muscle dysmorphia among members of fitness centers in Denpasar City, Bali, Indonesia. Public Health and Preventive Medicine Archive 8(1): 4–10.

76.

Thompson

Heinberg

Altabe

, et al (1999) Exacting Beauty: Theory, Assessment, and Treatment of Body Image Disturbance. 1st ed. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association (APA).

77.

Tiggemann

Anderberg

(2020) Muscles and bare chests on Instagram: the effect of Influencers’ fashion and fitspiration images on men’s body image. Body Image 35: 237–244.

78.

Tiggemann

Zaccardo

(2018) ‘Strong is the new skinny’: a content analysis of #fitspiration images on Instagram. Journal of Health Psychology 23(8): 1003–1011.

79.

Tiggemann

Hayden

Brown

, et al (2018) The effect of Instagram ‘likes’ on women’s social comparison and body dissatisfaction. Body Image 26: 90–97.

80.

Tiggemann

Martins

Churchett

(2008) Beyond muscles: unexplored parts of men’s body image. Journal of Health Psychology 13(8): 1163–1172.

81.

Tod

Edwards

Cranswick

(2016) Muscle dysmorphia: current insights. Psychology Research and Behavior Management 9: 179–188.

82.

Vandenbosch

Fardouly

Tiggemann

(2022) Social media and body image: recent trends and future directions. Current Opinion in Psychology 45: 101289.

83.

Weir

Jan

(2023) BMI Classification Percentile and Cut Off Points. Treasure Island, FL: StatPearls Publishing.

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

1.20 MB

0.01 MB