A large-scale content analysis of characters in video games was employed to answer questions about their representations of gender, race and age in comparison to the US population. The sample included 150 games from a year across nine platforms, with the results weighted according to game sales. This innovation enabled the results to be analyzed in proportion to the games that were actually played by the public, and thus allowed the first statements able to be generalized about the content of popular video games. The results show a systematic over-representation of males, white and adults and a systematic under-representation of females, Hispanics, Native Americans, children and the elderly. Overall, the results are similar to those found in television research. The implications for identity, cognitive models, cultivation and game research are discussed.
Bandura, A. (1994) `The Social Cognitive Theory of Mass Communication' , in J. Bryant and D. Zillmann (eds) Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, pp. 61-90. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum .
2.
Bodenhausen, G., N. Schwarz, H. Bless and M. Wänke (1995) `Effects of Atypical Exemplars on Racial Beliefs: Enlightened Racism or Generalized Appraisals?', Journal of Experimental Social Psychology31(1): 48-63.
3.
Braun, C.M. and J. Giroux (1989) `Arcade Videogames: Proxemic, Cognitive and Content Analyses', Journal of Leisure Research21(2): 92-105.
4.
Cohen, J. (1960) `A Coefficient of Agreement for Nominal Scales' , Educational and Psychological Measurement20(1): 37-46.
5.
Comstock, G. and R. Cobbey (1979) `Television and the Children of Ethnic Minorities' , Journal of Communication29(1): 104-15.
6.
DeJean, J., R. Upitis, C. Koch and J. Young (1999) `The Story of Phoenix Quest: How Girls Respond to a Prototype Language and Mathematics Computer Game', Gender and Education11(2): 207-23.
7.
Dietz, T.L. (1998) `An Examination of Violence and Gender Role Portrayals in Videogames: Implications for Gender Socialization and Aggressive Behavior' , Sex Roles38(5-6): 425-42.
8.
Dill, K., D. Gentile, W. Richter and J. Dill (2005) `Violence, Sex, Race and Age in Popular Videogames' , in E. Cole and J. Daniel (eds) Featuring Females: Feminist Analysis of the Media, pp. 115-30. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
9.
Dixon, T. and D. Linz (2000) `Overrepresentation and Underrepresentation of African Americans and Latinos as Lawbreakers on Television News', Journal of Communication50(2): 131-54.
10.
Downs, E.P. and S. Smith (2005) `Keeping Abreast of Hypersexuality: A Videogame Character Content Analysis', paper presented at the International Communication Association, New York, 26-30 May.
11.
Entertainment Software Association (2009) `Video Games and Families', URL (consulted 5 April 2009): http://www.theesa.com/gamesindailylife/families.asp
12.
Gerbner, G., L. Gross, M. Morgan and N. Signorielli (1994) `Growing Up with Television: The Cultivation Perspective' , in J. Bryant and D. Zillman (eds) Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research , pp. 17-41. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
13.
Gourdin, A. (2005) Game Developer Demographics: An Exploration of Workforce Diversity. Mt Royal, NJ: International Game Developers Association.
14.
Grieco, E. and R. Cassidy (2001) Overview of Race and Hispanic Origin: Census 2000 Brief. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce.
15.
Harwood, J. and K. Anderson (2002) `The Presence and Portrayal of Social Groups on Prime-time Television', Communication Reports15(2): 81-97.
16.
Heintz-Knowles, K., J. Henderson, C. Glaubke, P. Miller, M.A. Parker and E. Espejo (2001) Fair Play? Violence, Gender and Race in Videogames . Oakland, CA: Children Now.
17.
Hetzel, L. and A. Smith (2001) The 65 Years and Over Population: 2000: Census 2000 Brief. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce.
18.
Hirsch, P. (1981) `Distinguishing Good Speculation from Bad Theory: Rejoinder to Gerbner et al.', Communication Research8(1): 73-95.
19.
Hoffner, C. and J. Cantor (1991) `Perceiving and Responding to Mass Media Characters' , in J. Bryant and D. Zillman (eds) Responding to the Screen: Reception and Reaction Processes, pp. 63-101. Hillsdale, NJ : Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
20.
Janz, J. and R. Martis (2007) `The Lara Phenomenon: Powerful Female Characters in Videogames', Sex Roles56(3-4): 141-8.
21.
Lenhart, A., S. Jones and A.R. Macgill (2008) `Video Games: Adults Are Players Too, Pew Internet & American Life Project, URL (consulted 5 April 2009): http://pewresearch. org/pubs/1048/video-games-adults-are-players-too
22.
Lin, S. and M.R. Lepper (1987) `Correlates of Children's Usage of Videogames and Computers', Journal of Applied Social Psychology17(1): 72-93.
23.
McDermott, S. and B. Greenberg (1984) `Parents, Peers and Television as Determinants of Black Children's Esteem', in R. Bostrom (ed.) Communication Yearbook Vol. 8, pp. 164-77. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
24.
Mastro, D. and E. Behm-Morawitz (2005) `Latino Representation on Primetime Television', Journalism and Mass Communication Quarterly82(1): 110-30.
25.
Mastro, D., E. Behm-Morawitz and M. Ortiz (2007) `The Cultivation of Social Perceptions of Latinos: A Mental Models Approach', Media Psychology9(2): 347-65.
26.
Pan, Z. and G. Kosicki (1996) `Assessing News Media Influences on the Formation of Whites' Racial Policy Preferences', Communication Research23(2): 147-78.
27.
Potter, W.J. (1994) `Cultivation Theory and Research: A Methodological Critique', Journalism Monographs147: 1-17.
28.
Price, V. and D. Tewksbury (1997) `News Values and Public Opinion: A Theoretical Account of Media Priming and Framing', in G. Barnett and F. Boster (eds) Progress in the Communication Sciences Vol. 13, pp. 173-212. New York: Ablex.
29.
Reeves, B. (2007) `Doing Research with Avatars: Current Trends, Predictions and Warnings', paper presented at the International Communication Association, San Francisco, CA, 24-28 May.
30.
Reeves, B. and C. Nass (1996) The Media Equation: How People Treat Computers, Television and New Media Like Real People and Places. New York: Cambridge University Press/ CSLI.
31.
Rideout, V., D. Roberts and U. Foehr (2005) Generation M: Media in the Lives of 8-18 Year-olds . Washington, DC: Kaiser Family Foundation.
32.
Royse, P., J. Lee, B. Undrahbuyan, M. Hopson and M. Consalvo (2007) `Women and Games: Technologies of the Gendered Self', New Media & Society9(4): 555-76.
33.
Schierbeck, L. and B. Carstens (2000) `Violent Elements in Computer Games: An Analysis of Games Published in Denmark', in C. Vonfeiletzen and U. Carlsson (eds) Children in the Media Landscape: Games, Pornography, Perceptions, pp. 127-31. Nordicom: UNESCO International Clearinghouse on Children and Violence on the Screen.
34.
Sherry, J.L., Lucas, K., B.S. Greenberg and K. Lachlan (2006) `Videogame Uses and Gratifications as Predictors of Use and Game Preference', in P. Vorderer and J. Bryant (eds) Playing Computer Games: Motives, Responses and Consequences, pp. 213-24. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
35.
Shibuya, A., A. Sakamoto, R. Shiratori, K. Arai and F. Kato ( 2004) `The Quantity and Context of Videogame Violence in Japan: Toward Creating an Ethical Standard', in R. Shiratori (ed.) Gaming, Simulations and Society, pp. 111-20. Tokyo: Springer-Verlag.
36.
Shrum, L.J. (1999) `Television and Persuasion: Effects of the Programs between the Ads', Psychology and Marketing16(2): 1119-40.
37.
Shrum, L.J. (2002) `Media Consumption and Perceptions of Social Reality: Effects and Underlying Processes', in J. Bryant and D. Zillmann (eds) Media Effects: Advances in Theory and Research, pp. 69-95. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
38.
Slagle, M. (2006) `Poll: 4 in 10 Americans Play Videogames', Washington Post, 8 May, URL (consulted 20 June 2007): http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/05/07/ar2006050700172.html
39.
Smith, D. and R. Spraggins (2001) Gender: 2000: Census 2000 Brief. Washington, DC: US Department of Commerce.
40.
Smith, S., K. Lachlan and R. Tamborini (2003) `Popular Videogames: Quantifying the Presentation of Violence and its Context', Journal of Broadcasting and Electronic Media47(1): 58-76.
41.
Tajfel, H. (1978) Differentiation between Social Groups: Studies in the Social Psychology of Intergroup Relations. London : Academic Press.
42.
Taylor, T.L. (2006) Play between Worlds: Exploring Online Game Culture . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
43.
Thompson, K. and K. Haninger (2001) `Violence in E-rated Videogames', Journal of the American Medical Association286(5): 591-8.
44.
Thompson, K., K. Haninger and F. Yokota (2001) `Violence in Children's Films and Videogames: Reply' , Journal of the American Medical Association286(16): 1971-2.
45.
Thompson, K., K. Tepichin and K. Haninger (2006) `Content and Ratings of Mature-rated Videogames' , Archives of Pediatrics and Adolescent Medicine160(4): 402-10.
46.
Williams, D. (2006a) `A (Brief) Social History of Gaming', in P. Vorderer and J. Bryant (eds) Videogames: Motivations and Consequences of Use. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
47.
Williams, D. (2006b) `Virtual Cultivation: Online Worlds, Offline Perceptions' , Journal of Communication56(1): 69-87.
