Air-conditioned mosques, which have large volumes and are used intermittently five times daily, face significant energy consumption challenges. This study investigated air-conditioning (AC) operation and ventilation strategies in a typical large-scale air-conditioned mosque in the hot-humid climate of Malaysia. Simulations were conducted to evaluate the impact of various AC operational scenarios and ventilation strategies on energy efficiency and thermal comfort. The findings emphasize that strategic modifications can yield significant energy savings without compromising worshipers’ comfort. A pre-cooling period of 10 min before prayers, except for dawn prayers, which require 20 min, demonstrates a 5% reduction in energy consumption. In an advanced scenario that integrates natural ventilation of lower (doors) and upper (clerestory windows) openings during dawn prayers, a 10-min pre-cooling period for other prayers, and an optimized adaptive setpoint temperature, energy savings of up to 15% can be achieved. Thermal comfort analysis shows that the mosque maintains thermal comfort during dawn prayer ventilation, with the upper opening, at an indoor temperature of 26–27°C and an air exchange rate of 3 h−1. The results highlight the need to maintain indoor temperatures within optimal ranges to enhance occupant comfort while minimizing energy demand. This study has underscored the importance of integrating passive and active cooling strategies to improve energy efficiency in religious buildings with intermittent occupancy patterns.
As-SalafiyahARusydianaASMustafaMI. Mosque economics: a meta-analysis. Journal of Islamic Economic Literatures2020; 1: 1–14.
2.
YükselAArıcıMKrajčíkMCivanMKarabayH. Energy consumption, thermal comfort, and indoor air quality in mosques: impact of COVID-19 measures. J Clean Prod2022; 354: 131726.
3.
TaufanAZakiSATuckNWSinghMKRijalHB. Energy-efficient retrofitting strategies in mosque buildings: a review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev2023; 183: 113479.
4.
YükselAArıcıMKrajčíkMCivanMKarabayH. Developing a strategy to reduce energy consumption and CO2 emissions from underfloor heating systems in mosques: a case study of a typical neighbourhood mosque. Energy Build2023; 287: 112984.
5.
YükselAArıcıMKrajčíkMCivanMKarabayH. A review on thermal comfort, indoor air quality and energy consumption in temples. J Build Eng2021; 35: 102013.
6.
Al ToumaAOuahraniD. Enhanced thermal performance of mosques in Qatar. In: IOP Conference Series: Earth and Environmental Science 104. Shanghai, China, 2017, pp.1–8.
7.
DwelaHKayiliMT. The determination of the retrofitting strategies on thermal comfort and energy efficiency of mosques: the case of Yasamkent mosque. Comput Res Progr Appl Sci Eng2023; 9: 1–10.
8.
BudaiwiIAbdouA. HVAC system operational strategies for reduced energy consumption in buildings with intermittent occupancy: the case of mosques. Energy Convers Manag2013; 73: 37–50.
9.
MS 1525:2019: Energy efficiency and use of renewable energy for non-residential buildings - Code of practice (third revision). Department of Standards Malaysia, Cyberjaya Selangor Darul Ehsan, Malaysia, 2019.
10.
Ministry of Energy, Green Technology and Water. National energy efficiency action plan. Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, 2015
11.
Abd RahmanNAKamaruzzamanSNAkashahFWAnatiA. Energy efficiency compliance towards benchmarking for intermittent use religious buildings. Facilities2022; 41(1): 1–20.
12.
Al-shaalanAMAlohalyAHAKoW. Design strategies for a big mosque to reduce electricity consumption in Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. In: Proceedings of The 21st World Multi-Conference on Systemics, Cybernetics and Informatics (WMSCI 2017) Design. Orlando, Florida, USA, 8-11 July 2017, pp.313–317.
13.
HussinAHawLCSallehEMatS. Refrigeration and air conditioning technology for mosque ventilation in Malaysia: an observation from Islamic civilization context. Jurnal Hadhari2020; 12: 17–34.
14.
Martínez-MolinaATort-AusinaIChoSVivancosJL. Energy efficiency and thermal comfort in historic buildings: a review. Renewable Sustainable Energy Rev2016; 61: 70–85.
15.
YueNLiLMorandiAZhaoY. A metamodel-based multi-objective optimization method to balance thermal comfort and energy efficiency in a campus gymnasium. Energy Build2021; 253: 111513.
16.
SchitoEContiPUrbanucciLTestiD. Multi-objective optimization of HVAC control in museum environment for artwork preservation, visitors’ thermal comfort and energy efficiency. Build Environ2020; 180: 107018.
17.
Al-HomoudMSAbdouAABudaiwiIM. Mosque energy performance, part II: monitoring of energy end use in a hot-humid climate. J King Abdulaziz Univ Eng Sci2005; 16: 185–202.
18.
BudaiwiIMAbdouAAAl-HomoudMS. Envelope retrofit and air-conditioning operational strategies for reduced energy consumption in mosques in hot climates. Build Simul2013; 6: 33–50.
19.
Al-shaalanPAMAhmedWAlohalyA. Appropriate electric energy conservation measures for big mosques in Riyadh city. Appl Mech Mater2014; 492: 24–30.
20.
AtmacaABGedikGZ. Evaluation of mosques in terms of thermal comfort and energy consumption in a temperate-humid climate. Energy Build2019; 195: 195–204.
21.
AtmacaABGedikGZ. Development of energy efficient design proposals for air conditioned mosques: temperate humid climate case. Heliyon2023; 9: e20992.
22.
YükselAArıcıMKrajčíkMCivanMKarabayH. Cooling operation strategies in a typical neighborhood mosque: a case study on electricity consumption, CO2 emissions, and thermal comfort. Energy Build2024; 310: 114073.
23.
BudaiwiIMMohammedMA. Acceptable indoor air quality at reduced energy consumption for high-occupancy buildings with intermittent operation. Archit Sci Rev2023; 66: 242–258.
24.
SamiuddinSBudaiwiIMMohammedMA. Impact of HVAC operation and air distribution schemes on thermal comfort and energy consumption in intermittent high-occupancy buildings: a case of mosques. J Architect Eng2023; 29: 1451.
25.
PengYLeiYTeklerZDAntanuriNLauSKChongA. Hybrid system controls of natural ventilation and HVAC in mixed-mode buildings: a comprehensive review. Energy Build2022; 276: 112509.
26.
AzmiNABaharunAArıcıMIbrahimSH. Improving thermal comfort in mosques of hot-humid climates through passive and low-energy design strategies. Front Architect Res2022; 12: 361–385.
27.
KottekMGrieserJBeckCRudolfBRubelF. World map of the Köppen–Geiger climate classification updated. Meteorol Z2006; 15: 259–263.
AzmiNAIbrahimSH. A comprehensive review on thermal performance and envelope thermal design of mosque buildings. Build Environ2020; 185: 1–17.
30.
AzmiNAAriciMBaharunA. A review on the factors influencing energy efficiency of mosque buildings. J Clean Prod2021; 292: 1–19.
31.
MohamedNASShariZDahlanNDIdowuIA. Architectural sustainability on the impacts of different air-conditioning operational profiles and temperature setpoints on energy consumption: comparison between mosques with and without HVLS fan in the city center mosques. J Design Built Environ2021; 21: 19–38.
32.
ShohanAAAAl-khatriHBindajamAAGadiMB. Solar gain influence on the thermal and energy performance of existing mosque buildings in the hot-arid climate of Riyadh city. Sustainability2021; 13: 1–29.
SwarnoHAZakiSAHagishimaAYusupY. Characteristics of wind speed during rainfall event in the tropical urban city. Urban Clim2020; 32: 100620.
35.
TaufanAZakiSATuckNWRijalHBKhalidWOthmanNA. Thermal comfort and ventilation performance in an air-conditioned mosque in tropical climates of Malaysia. Adv Build Energy Res2025; 19(2): 199–240.
36.
CaroRSendraJJ. Are the dwellings of historic Mediterranean cities cold in winter? A field assessment on their indoor environment and energy performance. Energy Build2021; 230: 110567.
37.
ASHRAE. ASHRAE guideline 14: measurement of energy and demand savings. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 2002.
38.
WahabIAIsmailLHAbdullahAHRahmatMHAbd SalamNN. Natural ventilation design attributes application effect on indoor natural ventilation performance of a double storey single unit residential building. Int J Integra Eng2018; 10: 7–12.
39.
ANSI/ASHRAE. ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55-2023, Thermal environmental conditions for human occupancy. Atlanta, GA: American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers, Inc., 2023.
40.
NagasueMKitagawaHAsawaTKubotaT. A systematic review of passive cooling methods in hot and humid climates using a text mining-based bibliometric approach. Sustainability2024; 16(4): 1420.
FaghihAKBahadoriMN. Thermal performance evaluation of domed roofs. Energy Build2011; 43: 1254–1263.
43.
OthmanFZAhmadSSHanapiNL. The relationship between ventilation and opening strategies of domed mosque for indoor comfort. Universiti Teknologi MARA Cawangan Terengganu, Malaysia, e–Academia Special Issue GraCe, 2018; 85–91.
44.
DilerYTurhanCArsanZDAkkurtGG. Thermal comfort analysis of historical mosques. Case study: the Ulu mosque, Manisa, Turkey. Energy Build2021; 252: 111441.
45.
LiangRLe-HungTNguyen-ThoiT. Energy consumption prediction of air-conditioning systems in eco-buildings using hunger games search optimization-based artificial neural network model. J Build Eng2022; 59: 105087.
46.
RaySDSadabaSLeungL. Intelligently controlled naturally ventilated mosque – A case study of applying design tools throughout the design process. Int J Vent2016; 3315: 214386.
47.
YükselAArıcıMKrajčíkMKarabayH. Experimental investigation of thermal comfort and CO2 concentration in mosques: a case study in warm temperate climate of Yalova, Turkey. Sustain Cities Soc2020; 52: 101809.
48.
RedaIAbdelMessihRNSteitMMinaEM. Exhaled CO2-based tracer gas for measuring ventilation rates and energy consumption with application to worship places. Ain Shams Eng J2023; 14: 102138.
49.
NicolF. Adaptive thermal comfort standards in the hot-humid tropics. Energy Build2004; 36: 628–637.
50.
RijalHBTuohyPHumphreysMNicolJFSamuelARajaIAClarkeJ. Development of adaptive algorithms for the operation of windows, fans, and doors to predict thermal comfort and energy use in Pakistani buildings. ASHRAE Trans2008; 114: 555–573.
51.
KubotaTToeDHC. The effectiveness of night ventilation technique for residential buildings in hot-humid climate of Malaysia. J Environ Eng (Trans AIJ)2009; 74: 89–95.
52.
WuZZhangYMaiJWangFZhaiYZhangZ. Adaptation-based indoor environment control with night natural ventilation in autumn in an office building in a hot-humid area. Build Environ2023; 243: 110702.
53.
ShaHQiD. A review of high-rise ventilation for energy efficiency and safety. Sustain Cities Soc2020; 54: 101971.
54.
RodríguezDUrbietaIRVelascoÁCampano-LabordaMAJimenezE. Assessment of indoor air quality and risk of COVID-19 infection in Spanish secondary school and university classrooms. Build Environ2022; 226: 109717.
55.
ZhangGWangDCZhangJPHanYPSunW. Simulation of operating characteristics of the silica gel–water adsorption chiller powered by solar energy. Sol Energy2011; 85: 1469–1478.
56.
ToeDHCKubotaT. Comparative assessment of vernacular passive cooling techniques for improving indoor thermal comfort of modern terraced houses in hot-humid climate of Malaysia. Sol Energy2015; 114: 229–258.
57.
ChenYTongZMalkawiA. Investigating natural ventilation potentials across the globe: regional and climatic variations. Build Environ2017; 122: 386–396.
58.
RanJTangM. Passive cooling of the green roofs combined with night-time ventilation and walls insulation in hot and humid regions. Sustain Cities Soc2018; 38: 466–475.
59.
BragerGSde DearRJ. Thermal adaptation in the built environment: a literature review. Energy Build1998; 27: 83–96.
60.
de DearRJBragerGS. Developing an adaptive model of thermal comfort and preference. ASHRAE Trans1998; 104: 145–167.
61.
NicolJFHumphreysMA. Adaptive thermal comfort and sustainable thermal standards for buildings. Energy Build2002; 34: 563–572.
