At critical transportation hubs in modern cities, the impact of volatile organic compound (VOC) pollution on public health in underground train stations is of great concern to society. However, the prevention and control of VOC pollution at underground train stations remain insufficiently explored owing to complex compositions and unclear sources. In this study, VOC samples were collected from 12 underground train stations in Chengdu to investigate their composition, pollution characteristics and influence on public health. The study detected 93 VOCs with a total VOC concentration of 80.64 ± 17.94 μg/m3. The primary sources of VOCs were organic solvent (23.31%), station emanation (13.33%), traffic emissions (10.96%), industrial emissions (21.49%) and human emanations (30.93%). Although underground train station VOCs were not found to pose non-cancer risks to the population, they contribute to low levels of cancer risks. This poses a significantly higher health risk to underground train station workers than to passengers. The findings offer a scientific foundation for developing effective pollution control strategies for VOCs at underground train stations and support the advancement of a healthy and sustainable environment for passengers.
WangHHuangSHDengMSYuanYP. Investigation of volatile organic compounds types in Chengdu metro stations and carriages and their influencing factor analysis. Chin J Environ Eng2022; 16: 2796–2806(in Chinese).
3.
ZhangYLiX. Numerical analysis on the condenser inlet air temperature of train-mounted air conditioner when a train stops in subway station tunnel. Sustain Cities Soc2021; 69: 102793. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.102793.
4.
AydinNSekerSÖzkanB. Planning location of mobility hub for sustainable urban mobility. Sustain Cities Soc2022; 81: 103843. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2022.103843.
5.
GustafssonMBlomqvistGSwietlickiEDahlAGudmundssonA. Inhalable railroad particles at ground level and subterranean stations – physical and chemical properties and relation to train traffic. Transp Res Part D: Transp Environ2012; 17: 277–285. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trd.2011.12.006.
6.
AbbasiSJanssonASellgrenUOlofssonU. Particle emissions from rail traffic: a literature review. Crit Rev Environ Sci Technol2013; 43: 2511–2544. https://doi.org/10.1080/10643389.2012.685348.
7.
ParkDLeeTHwangDJungWLeeYChoKKimDLeeK. Identification of the sources of PM10 in a subway tunnel using positive matrix factorization. J Air Waste Manage Assoc2014; 64: 1361–1368. https://doi.org/10.1080/10962247.2014.950766.
8.
OtuyoMKMohd NadzirMSLatifMTSawLH. In-train particulate matter (PM10 and PM2.5) concentrations: level, source, composition, mitigation measures and health risk effect – a systematic literature review. Indoor Built Environ2023; 32: 460–493. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X221131947.
9.
HuangSWangHWuDMaRSunLDengM. Influencing factors of particulate matter concentration in the metro carriage and the corresponding inhalation intake estimation: a field measurement in Chengdu. Atmosphere2022; 13: 1821. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos13111821.
10.
KappeltNRussellHSFessaDRyswykKVHertelOJohnsonMS. Particulate air pollution in the Copenhagen Metro Part 1: mass concentrations and ventilation. Environ Int2023; 171: 107621. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107621.
11.
HuangSMaRZhangPHuCWuDSunLDengM. Characteristics and health risk assessments of fine particulate matter at the overground and underground subway sites in Chengdu. Build Environ2023; 242: 110577. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.110577.
12.
HuangSLiYZhangPLiJLiJMaRWuDSunLLvMDengM. Source apportionment of fine particulate matter at different underground sites in the Chengdu metro system in summer. Build Environ2024; 248: 111081. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2023.111081.
13.
SmithJDBarrattBMFullerGWKellyFJLoxhamMNicolosiEPriestmanMTremperAHGreenDC. PM2.5 On the London underground. Environ Int2020; 134: 105188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2019.105188.
14.
ZhangMShaoLJonesTFengXGeSYangC-XCaoYBéruBéKZhangD. Atmospheric iron particles in PM2.5 from a subway station, Beijing, China. Atmos Environ2022; 283: 119175. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2022.119175.
15.
SiriarchawatanaPPumkaeoPHarnpicharnchaiPLikhitrattanapisalSMayteeworakoonSBoonsinWZhouXLiangJCaiLIngsriswangS. Temporal, compositional, and functional differences in the microbiome of Bangkok subway air environment. Environ Res2023; 219: 115065. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.115065.
16.
LiuZDingMHuCRongRLinCYaoGShaoXJinG. Susceptibility and exposure risk to airborne aerosols in intra-urban microclimate: evidence from subway system of mega-cities. Sci Total Environ2024; 917: 170514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170514.
17.
PilipencoAForinováMMaškováHHönigVPalusMLynn JrNSVíšováIVrabcováMHouskaMAnthiJSpasovováMMustacováJŠtěrbaJDostálekJTungC-PYangA-SJackRDejnekaAHajduJVaisocherová-LísalováH. Negligible risk of surface transmission of SARS-CoV-2 in public transportation. J Travel Med2023; 30: taad065. https://doi.org/10.1093/jtm/taad065.
18.
RoyDSeoY-CNamgungH-GKwonS-B. Inhalation cancer risk from PM10 in the metropolitan subway stations in Korea. J Transp Health2019; 14: 100580. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jth.2019.100580.
19.
Figueroa-LaraJJMurcia-GonzálezJMGarcía-MartínezRRomero-RomoMTorres RodríguezMMugica-ÁlvarezV. Effect of platform subway depth on the presence of airborne PM2.5, metals, and toxic organic species. J Hazard Mater2019; 377: 427–436. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2019.05.091.
20.
LovettCShirmohammadiFSowlatMHSioutasC. Commuting in Los Angeles: cancer and non-cancer health risks of roadway, light-rail and subway transit routes. Aeros Air Quality Res2018; 18: 2363–2374. https://doi.org/10.4209/aaqr.2017.09.0331.
21.
GongYZhouTZhaoYXuB. Characterization and risk assessment of particulate matter and volatile organic compounds in metro carriage in Shanghai, China. Atmosphere2019; 10: 302. https://doi.org/10.3390/atmos10060302.
ParkWMParkJBRohJHwangSH. Levels of formaldehyde and TVOCs and influential factors of 100 underground station environments from 2013 to 2015. Hum Ecol Risk Assessm: Int J2018; 24: 1030–1042. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2017.1405341.
24.
MangotraASinghSK. Volatile organic compounds: a threat to the environment and health hazards to living organisms – a review. J Biotechnol2024; 382: 51–69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbiotec.2023.12.013.
25.
MuLFengCLiYLiXLiuTJiangXLiuZBaiHLiuX. Emission factors and source profiles of VOCs emitted from coke production in Shanxi, China. Environ Pollut2023; 335: 122373. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.122373.
26.
LiZLuJRuanXWuYZhaoJJiaoXSunJSunK. Exposure to volatile organic compounds induces cardiovascular toxicity that may involve DNA methylation. Toxicology2024; 501: 153705. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2023.153705.
27.
AllenJGMacNaughtonPSatishUSantanamSVallarinoJSpenglerJD. Associations of cognitive function scores with carbon dioxide, ventilation, and volatile organic compound exposures in office workers: a controlled exposure study of green and conventional office environments. Environ Health Perspect2016; 124: 805–812. https://doi.org/10.1289/ehp.1510037.
28.
GongYWeiYChengJJiangTChenLXuB. Health risk assessment and personal exposure to volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in metro carriages – a case study in Shanghai, China. Sci Total Environ2017; 574: 1432–1438. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.08.072.
29.
TongRZhangLYangXZhouPXuS. Probabilistic health risk of volatile organic compounds (VOCs): comparison among different commuting modes in Guangzhou, China. Hum Ecol Risk Assessm: Int J2019; 25: 637–658. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2018.1440526.
30.
LeiLLiuW. Inverse identification model for release rates of multiple gaseous pollution sources in an aircraft cabin. Indoor Built Environ2023; 32: 1798–1810. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X231170787.
31.
DungNTToanVDHuongNTLMaiNTHaNNM. Level of BTEX in the areas of domestic waste incinerators in Northern Vietnam: a comprehensive assessment of contamination, composition and human health risk. Bull Environ Contam Toxicol2023; 110: 84. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00128-023-03724-6.
32.
LiuRMaSChenDLiGYuYFanRAnT. Human exposure to BTEX emitted from a typical e-waste recycling industrial park: external and internal exposure levels, sources, and probabilistic risk implications. J Hazard Mater2022; 437: 129343. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2022.129343.
33.
KhoshakhlaghAHYazdaniradSMousaviMGruszecka-KosowskaAShahriyariMRajabi-VardanjaniH. Summer and winter variations of BTEX concentrations in an oil refinery complex and health risk assessment based on Monte-Carlo simulations. Sci Rep2023; 13: 10670. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-37647-3.
34.
WangMJiangDYangLWeiJKongLXieWDingDFanTDengS. Natural attenuation of BTEX and chlorobenzenes in a formerly contaminated pesticide site in China: examining kinetics, mechanisms, and isotopes analysis. Sci Total Environ2024; 918: 170506. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170506.
35.
YuBYuanZYuZXue-songF. BTEX In the environment: an update on sources, fate, distribution, pretreatment, analysis, and removal techniques. Chem Eng J2022; 435: 134825. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cej.2022.134825.
36.
HosseinzadehMHemmatjoRMoutab SahihazarZGalvaniSHajaghazadehM. Probabilistic health risk assessment of occupational exposure to BTEX in a paint manufacturing plant using Monte-Carlo simulation. Hum Ecol Risk Assessm: Int J2023; 29: 859–880. https://doi.org/10.1080/10807039.2023.2196702.
37.
PalVKLeeSNaiduMLeeCKannanK. Occurrence of and dermal exposure to benzene, toluene and styrene found in hand sanitizers from the United States. Environ Int2022; 167: 107449. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107449.
38.
LiAJPalVKKannanK. A review of environmental occurrence, toxicity, biotransformation and biomonitoring of volatile organic compounds. Environ Chem Ecotoxicol2021; 3: 91–116. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.enceco.2021.01.001.
39.
ZhangLWangBLiKWangZXuDSuYWuDXieB. Non-negligible health risks caused by inhalation exposure to aldehydes and ketones during food waste treatments in megacity Shanghai. Environ Pollut2023; 325: 121448. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2023.121448.
40.
ZhangWBaiZShiLSonJHLiLWangLChenJ. Investigating aldehyde and ketone compounds produced from indoor cooking emissions and assessing their health risk to human beings. J Environ Sci2023; 127: 389–398. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2022.05.033.
41.
FengYMuCZhaiJLiJZouT. Characteristics and personal exposures of carbonyl compounds in the subway stations and in-subway trains of Shanghai, China. J Hazard Mater2010; 183: 574–582. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhazmat.2010.07.062.
42.
DoDHVan LangenhoveHChigboSIAmareANDemeestereKWalgraeveC. Exposure to volatile organic compounds: comparison among different transportation modes. Atmos Environ2014; 94: 53–62. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2014.05.019.
43.
ChenYXXiuGLYangJZhengYWangSCaiJ. Environmental health risk factors and related standards for urban mass transit underground stations: a review of recent studies. J Environ Health2012; 29: 1139–1148(in Chinese).
44.
ParkJ-HSonY-SKimK-H. A review of traditional and advanced technologies for the removal of particulate matter in subway systems. Indoor Air2019; 29: 177–191. https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12532.
45.
ZhangWZZhangPY. Research progress in the odorants and their emissions from indoor building decoration materials. Environ Sci2021; 42: 5046–5058(in Chinese).
46.
LucchiGCrépinMChambaronSPeltierCGilbertLGuéréCViéK. Effects of psychological stress on the emission of volatile organic compounds from the skin. Sci Rep2024; 14: 7238. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-57967-2.
47.
WenYLengJShenXHanGSunLYuF. Environmental and health effects of ventilation in subway stations: a literature review. Int J Environ Res Publ Health2020; 17: 1084. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17031084.
48.
WenMDengWHuangJZhangSLinQWangCMaSWangWZhangXLiGAnT. Atmospheric VOCs in an industrial coking facility and the surrounding area: characteristics, spatial distribution and source apportionment. J Environ Sci2024; 138: 660–670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2023.04.026.
49.
AkteruzzamanMRahmanMARabbiFMAsharofSRofiMMHasanMKMuktadir IslamMAKhanMARRahmanMMRahamanMH. The impacts of cooking and indoor air quality assessment in the southwestern region of Bangladesh. Heliyon2023; 9: e12852. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e12852.
50.
WangXMengXChangLPeiFWanTCuiTLiuYPanS. Concentration, composition and exposure risk assessment of particulate matter with different particle sizes in subway stations. Build Environ2024; 258: 111604. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2024.111604.
51.
RenCChenHWangJFengZCaoS-J. Ventilation impacts on infection risk mitigation, improvement of environmental quality and energy efficiency for subway carriages. Build Environ2022; 222: 109358. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2022.109358.
52.
US Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA). Risk Assessment Guidance for Superfund (RAGS). Volume I. Human Health Evaluation Manual (HHEM). Part E. Supplemental Guidance for Dermal Risk Assessment EPA/540/1-89/002. Washington, D.C.: US Environmental Protection Agency, 2004. https://cfpub.epa.gov/si/si_public_record_report.cfm?Lab=OSRTI&dirEntryId=82966.
53.
GB/T 18883-2022. Indoor Air Quality Standard. Beijing: China Standard Press, 2022(in Chinese).
54.
YinYHeJZhaoLPeiJYangXSunYCuiXLinC-HWeiDChenQ. Identification of key volatile organic compounds in aircraft cabins and associated inhalation health risks. Environ Int2022; 158: 106999. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2021.106999.
55.
PaateroPTapperU. Analysis of different modes of factor analysis as least squares fit problems. Chemometr Intell Lab Syst1993; 18: 183–194. https://doi.org/10.1016/0169-7439(93)80055-M.
56.
WeiYWangSJiangNZhangDZhangR. Study on main sources of aerosol pH and new methods for additional reduction of PM2.5 during winter severe pollution: based on the PMF-GAS model. J Clean Prod2024; 471: 143401. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2024.143401.
57.
GuanYWangLWangSZhangYXiaoJWangXDuanELaHou. Temporal variations and source apportionment of volatile organic compounds at an urban site in Shijiazhuang, China. J Environ Sci2020; 97: 25–34. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jes.2020.04.022.
58.
LiCBaiLHeZWangY. Health risk assessment of heavy metals and poly-aromatic hydrocarbons in particulate matter adsorbed by indoor air purifiers. Indoor Built Environ2022; 31: 1594–1612. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326(211052239.
59.
LiCLiZWangH. Characterization and risk assessment of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution in particulate matter in rural residential environments in China – a review. Sustain Cities Soc2023; 96: 104690. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2023.104690.
60.
BaiLLiC. Investigation of indoor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) in rural Northeast China: pollution characteristics, source analysis, and health assessment. Buildings2022; 12: 153. http://doi.org/10.3390/buildings12020153.
61.
BaghaniANDanaESorooshianAJafariAJAalamolhodaAASheikhiRJajarmiFShahsavaniADelikhoonMEbrahimzadeGAshournejadQMansoorianHJKermaniM. Sensitivity of BTEX pollution and health effects to traffic restrictions: a case study in an urban center of Tehran, Iran. Sustain Cities Soc2024; 104: 105281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2024.105281.
62.
BaiLLiCYuCWHeZ. Air pollution and health risk assessment in northeastern China: a case study of Jilin province. Indoor Built Environ2021; 30: 1857–1874. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X211052239.
63.
WangJHuangYBoYZhangYZhangL. Air pollution characteristics and human health risk assessment of underground parking garages in Xi’an, China. Indoor Built Environ2023; 32: 632–651. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X221131951.
64.
LiCBaiLWangHLiZ. Promoting the design of future urban metro systems to improve air pollution: based on metal element pollution in Chinese metro system. Sustain Cities Soc2023; 97: 104753. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2023.104753.
65.
ZuoTT. A survey on air quality and impact factors related in Xi'an subway system. A master thesis, Xi’an University of Architecture and Technology, Xi’an, China, 2015(in Chinese).
66.
Ministry of Environmental Protection of China. Exposure Factors Handbook of Chinese Population (Adults). Beijing: China Environment Press, 2013(in Chinese).
67.
Ministry of Environmental Protection of China. Exposure Factors Handbook of Chinese Population (Children). Beijing: China Environment Press, 2013(in Chinese).
68.
California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (CA OEHHA). Toxicity criteria on chemicals evaluated by OEHHA. Sacramento: California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment, 2021. https://oehha.ca.gov/chemicals.
YanYPengLChengNBaiHMuL. Health risk assessment of toxic VOCs species for the coal fire well drillers. Environ Sci Pollut Res2015; 22: 15132–15144. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11356-015-4729-7.
71.
BaiLDaiHWangJLiGM. Source apportionment and health risk assessment of indoor volatile organic compounds. Indoor Built Environ2022; 31: 1564–1576. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X211065043.
ChangLWangSAnQLiuLWangHLiYFengKZuoZ. Resurgence and advancement of photochemical hydrogen atom transfer processes in selective alkane functionalizations. Chem Sci2023; 14: 6841–6859. https://doi.org/10.1039/D3SC01118F.
74.
LinXTangXWenZLongBFittschenCGuXGaiYZhangW. Direct observation of the particle-phase bicyclic products from OH-initiated oxidation of 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene under NOx-free conditions. Atmos Environ2022; 271: 118914. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.atmosenv.2021.118914.
75.
HuangCBianCWangLZhouWLiYLiB. Development and validation of a method for determining d-limonene and its oxidation products in vegetables and soil using GC-MS. Microchem J2022; 179: 107470. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.microc.2022.107470.
76.
ChaoY-SWuC-JWuH-CHsuH-TTsaoL-CChengY-PLaiY-CChenW-C. Opportunities and challenges from leading trends in a biomonitoring project: Canadian health measures survey 2007–2017. Front Publ Health2020; 8: 460. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2020.00460.
77.
HasanMRHaqueMMHoqueMASultanaSRahmanMMAli ShaikhMASarkerMKU. Antioxidant activity study and GC-MS profiling of Camellia sinensis Linn. Heliyon2024; 10: e23514. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e23514.
78.
EkubanAShichinoSZongCEkubanFAKinoshitaKIchiharaSMatsushimaKIchiharaG. Transcriptome analysis of human cholangiocytes exposed to carcinogenic 1,2-dichloropropane in the presence of macrophages in vitro. Sci Rep2022; 12: 11222. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-022-15295-3.
79.
LinNRosembergM-ALiWMeza-WilsonEGodwinCBattermanS. Occupational exposure and health risks of volatile organic compounds of hotel housekeepers: field measurements of exposure and health risks. Indoor Air2021; 31: 26–39. https://doi.org/10.1111/ina.12709.
80.
NadeemFHanifMAAlMasoudNAlomarTSYounisA. Efficient nanostructured materials to reduce nutrient leaching to overcome environmental contaminants. Sci Rep2024; 14: 4772. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-024-54049-1.
81.
GengXBaiL. Characteristics of particulate matter and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon pollution generated during kitchen cooking and health risk assessment. Indoor Built Environ2024; 33: 722–740. https://doi.org/10.1177/1420326X231219999.
82.
XieTDangZZhangQSuLZhouYLiSZhangJZhangRLiaoCLuG. Kinetics, mechanism, and application of sodium persulfate activated by sodium hydroxide for removing 1,2-dichloroethane from groundwater. Environ Res2023; 216: 114694. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2022.114694.
TangjarukijCSettachanDZelikoffJTNavasumritPRuchirawatM. Pyridoxine deficiency modulates benzene inhalation-induced hematotoxicity associated with hepatic CYP2E1 activity in B6C3F1 mice. Toxicol Rep2021; 8: 1607–1615. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxrep.2021.08.008.
85.
SzabóIVargaC. Finding possible pharmacological effects of identified organic compounds in medicinal waters (BTEX and phenolic compounds). Int J Biometeorol2020; 64: 989–995. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00484-019-01808-9.
86.
CuiZFengXLiHTanT. Interconversion of Lewis acid and Brønsted acid catalysts in biomass-derived paraxylene synthesis. Chem Eng Sci2020; 227: 115942. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ces.2020.115942.
87.
MiTHanCWangYHongmeiMJianpingJYuchuanDFatemaEJunCLihuaPJiaXYong-XinS. Acute toxic leukoencephalopathy in migrant workers exposed to organic solvents in construction materials. Occup Environ Med2013; 70: 435–436. https://doi.org/10.1136/oemed-2012-101302.
88.
LiuXYangJRanRLongFYangYDongXSafferyRNovakovicBMousaHWeiYHuLHanT-L. Chorionicity-associated variation in metabolic phenotype of cord blood in twin. Nutr Metab2023; 20: 31. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12986-023-00744-1.
89.
LiuBY. Study on Ambient Air Quality in Subway Cars. Beijing: Beijing Municipal Engineering Research Institute, 2016(in Chinese).
90.
ZulaufNDrögeJKlingelhöferDBraunMOremekGMGronebergDA. Indoor air pollution in cars: an update on novel insights. Int J Environ Res Publ Health2019; 16: 2441. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16132441.
91.
LiangXChenLLiuMLuQLuHGaoBZhaoWSunXXuJYeD. Carbonyls from commercial, canteen and residential cooking activities as crucial components of VOC emissions in China. Sci Total Environ2022; 846: 157317. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.157317.
92.
AlygizakisNGalaniARousisNIAalizadehRDimopoulosM-AThomaidisNS. Change in the chemical content of untreated wastewater of Athens, Greece under COVID-19 pandemic. Sci Total Environ2021; 799: 149230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.149230.
93.
HoriiYKannanK. Survey of organosilicone compounds, including cyclic and linear siloxanes, in personal-care and household products. Arch Environ Contam Toxicol2008; 55: 701–710. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00244-008-9172-z.
94.
DuYYBieHMLiHY. Uncertainty estimation of determination of methylcyclosiloxane in leather by GC-MS. Leather Chem2022; 39: 19–24(in Chinese).
95.
YinXZhangHQiaoXZhouXXueZChenXYeHLiCTangZZhangKWangT. Artificial olfactory memory system based on conductive metal–organic frameworks. Nat Commun2024; 15: 8409. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41467-024-52567-0.
96.
LeeCMKimYSNagajyotiPCParkWKimKY. Pattern classification of volatile organic compounds in various indoor environments. Water, Air, Soil Pollut2011; 215: 329–338. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11270-010-0481-2.
97.
ChenJZhaoYYuanSZhangJLiQWangH. Drying process of waterborne paint film on bamboo laminated lumber for furniture. Polymers2023; 15: 1288. https://doi.org/10.3390/polym15051288.
98.
HwangSHWonJ-UParkWM. Changes in total volatile organic compound concentration in Seoul subway stations before (2019) and after (2021) the COVID-19 outbreak. Sci Rep2023; 13: 20328. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-023-46519-9.
99.
Seoul Metro. Assessment of indoor air quality in Seoul Metro environment. Seoul: Seoul Metro, 2021. http://www.seoulmetro.co.kr.
100.
MaoPLiJXiongLWangRWangXTanYLiH. Characterization of urban subway microenvironment exposure – a case of Nanjing in China. Int J Environ Res Publ Health2019; 16: 625. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph16040625.
101.
JiWLiuZLiuCWangCLiX. Characteristics of fine particulate matter and volatile organic compounds in subway station offices in China. Build Environ2021; 188: 107502. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107502.
102.
ZhangYLiCWangXGuoHFengYChenJ. Rush-hour aromatic and chlorinated hydrocarbons in selected subway stations of Shanghai, China. J Environ Sci2012; 24: 131–141. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(11)60736-5.
103.
SunX. Study on the characterization of VOCs emitted from human body and human-environment interactions. A doctorate thesis, Tsinghua University, Beijing, 2017(in Chinese).
104.
OgbodoJOArazuAVIguhTCOnwodiNJEzikeTC. Volatile organic compounds: a proinflammatory activator in autoimmune diseases. Front Immunol2022; 13: 928379. https://doi.org/10.3389/fimmu.2022.928379.
105.
PangLYangCCaoXTianQLiB. Experimental investigation of air quality in a subway station with fully enclosed platform screen doors. Int J Environ Res Publ Health2020; 17: 5213. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17145213.
106.
BruchardWBajracharyaAJohnstonNAC. Volatile organic compound emissions from disinfectant usage in the home and office. Environ Health Perspect2023; 131: 047701. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP11916.
107.
GersterFMVernezDWildPPHopfNB. Hazardous substances in frequently used professional cleaning products. Int J Occup Environ Health2014; 20: 46–60. https://doi.org/10.1179/2049396713Y.0000000052.
108.
HuangSHanMChenPFengWLiGZhangHPengHHuangT. Assessing health risks from bioaccessible PM2.5-bound toxic metals in Nanchang Metro: implications for metro workers and emissions control. Environ Res2024; 258: 119284. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2024.119284.
109.
DavidsonCJHanniganJHBowenSE. Effects of inhaled combined benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, and xylenes (BTEX): toward an environmental exposure model. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol2021; 81: 103518. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2020.103518.
110.
NeghabMHosseinzadehKHassanzadehJ. Early liver and kidney dysfunction associated with occupational exposure to sub-threshold limit value levels of benzene, toluene, and xylenes in unleaded petrol. Safety Health Work2015; 6: 312–316. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.shaw.2015.07.008.
111.
WerderEJEngelLSBlairAKwokRKMcGrathJASandlerDP. Blood BTEX levels and neurologic symptoms in Gulf states residents. Environ Res2019; 175: 100–107. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envres.2019.05.004.
112.
HamidHHALatifMTNadzirMSMUningRKhanMFKannanN. Ambient BTEX levels over urban, suburban and rural areas in Malaysia. Air Qual, Atmos Health2019; 12: 341–351. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11869-019-00664-1.
113.
International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC). Benzene: Monographs on the Evaluation of Carcinogenic Risks to Humans. Lyon, France: World Health Organization, 2018.
114.
LoftusCTSzpiroAAWorkmanTWallaceERHazlehurstMFDayDBNiYCarrollKNAdgentMAMoorePEBarrettESNguyenRHNKannanKRobinsonMMastersonEETylavskyFABushNRLeWinnKZSathyanarayanaSKarrCJ. Maternal exposure to urinary polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) in pregnancy and childhood asthma in a pooled multi-cohort study. Environ Int2022; 170: 107494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2022.107494.
115.
SunYChenJQinWYuQXinKAiJHuangHLiuX. Gas-PM2.5 partitioning, health risks, and sources of atmospheric PAHs in a northern China city: impact of domestic heating. Environ Pollut2022; 313: 120156. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2022.120156.
116.
LiCBaiLWangHLiGCuiY. Characteristics of indoor and outdoor polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) pollution in TSP in rural northeast China: a case study of heating and non-heating periods. J Environ Health Sci Eng2022; 20: 899–913. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40201-022-00830-1.
117.
ZhangJWangJFengJ, Lv J, Liu Q, Xie S. Toxic effects of 1,4-dichlorobenzene on photosynthesis in Chlorella pyrenoidosa. Environ Monitor Assessm2016; 188: 526. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10661-016-5537-3.
118.
JainRB. Detection rates, trends in and factors affecting observed levels of selected volatile organic compounds in blood among US adolescents and adults. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol2017; 56: 21–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.etap.2017.08.031.
119.
DuZMoJZhangY. Risk assessment of population inhalation exposure to volatile organic compounds and carbonyls in urban China. Environ Int2014; 73: 33–45. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envint.2014.06.014.
US EPA National Center for Environmental Assessment. Toxicology and Carcinogenesis Studies of Tetrachloroethylene (Perchloroethylene) (CASRN 127-18-4) in F344/N Rats and B6C3F1 Mice (Inhalation Studies). North Carolina: National Toxicology Program, 1986. https://ntp.niehs.nih.gov/publications/reports/index.html.
124.
LiCBaiLHeZLiuXXuX. The effect of air purifiers on the reduction in indoor PM2.5 concentrations and population health improvement. Sustain Cities Soc2021; 75: 103298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scs.2021.103298.
125.
AsileviPJBoakyePOduro-KwartengSFei-BaffoeBSokama-NeuyamYA. Indoor air quality improvement and purification by atmospheric pressure non-thermal plasma (NTP). Sci Rep2021; 11: 22830. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-021-02276-1.
126.
ZhongLSuF-CBattermanS. Volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in conventional and high performance school buildings in the U.S. Int J Environ Res Publ Health2017; 14: 100. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph14010100.
127.
RyuHKimY-H. Measuring the quantity of harmful volatile organic compounds inhaled through masks. Ecotoxicol Environ Safety2023; 256: 114915. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.114915.
128.
QuigleyALTrentMSealeHChughtaiAAMacIntyreCR. Cross-sectional survey of changes in knowledge, attitudes and practice of mask use in Sydney and Melbourne during the 2020 COVID-19 pandemic. BMJ Open2022; 12: e057860. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2021-057860.
