Microplastics (MPs), measuring less than 5 mm, have been causing environmental concerns in aquatic ecosystems, and less work has been done in indoor environments, where humans spend most of their lives. This finding revealed a diverse range of MPs within indoor house dust samples. These MPs encompassed fibres, fragments, foams, pellets and films. Due to the ubiquity of textile-based items, fibres are the most common indoor MP. The MPs have different colours like black, red, blue, yellow, white and brown. The study revealed there were substantial differences in MP sizes across different households. The average size range was 178.87–3713.99 µm. One hundred eighteen particles were identified as MPs. The study identified 22 types of MPs, shedding light on these materials’ extensive sources and applications in everyday household items. MPs in indoor environments raise concerns about potential human exposure and underscore the need for further research into their health implications. The MPs found in most indoor house samples were low-density polyethylene, polyethylene, polypropylene, polyamide, polyvinyl chloride, high-density polyethylene and polystyrene. Carbon, nitrogen, fluorine, sodium, sulphur, potassium, calcium, zinc, oxygen and magnesium were the common elements in all indoor house dust samples. Compared with the active sampling, slightly more work has been done on the indoor house dust samples.
EraslanFNBhatMAGedikKGagaEO. The single-use plastic pandemic in the COVID-19 era. In: VithanageMPrasadMNV (eds). Microplastics in the Ecosphere: Air, Water, Soil, and Food. New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2023, pp. 65–75.
2.
BhatMAGedikKGagaEO. Atmospheric micro (Nano) plastics: future growing concerns for human health. Air Qual Atmos Heal2023; 16: 233–262.
3.
BhatMA. Indoor Microplastics: a comprehensive review and bibliometric analysis. Environ Sci Pollut Res2023; 30: 121269–121291.
4.
ThacharodiAHassanSMeenatchiRBhatMAHussainNArockiarajJNgoHHSharmaANguyenHTPugazhendhiA. Mitigating Microplastic pollution: a critical review on the effects, remediation, and utilization strategies of Microplastics. J Environ Manag2024; 351: 119988.
5.
ThacharodiAMeenatchiRHassanSHussainNBhatMAArockiarajJNgoHHLeQHPugazhendhiA. Microplastics in the environment: a critical overview on its fate, toxicity, implications, management, and bioremediation strategies. J Environ Manag2024; 349: 119433.
6.
PerumpullySJKumarRPGautamSAmbadeBGautamAS. An inclusive trend study of evaluation and scientometric analysis of microplastics. Phys Chem Earth2023; 132: 103455.
7.
PatidarKAmbadeBMohammadFSoleimanAA. Microplastics as heavy metal vectors in the freshwater environment: distribution, variations, sources and health risk. Phys Chem Earth2023; 131: 103448.
8.
KuizengaBTasseronPFWendt-potthoffKvan EmmerikTHM. From source to sea: floating macroplastic transport along the Rhine river. Front Environ Sci2023; 11: 1180872.
9.
BhatMAEraslanFNGagaEOGedikK. Scientometric analysis of Microplastics across the globe. In: VithanageMPrasadMNV (eds). Microplastics in the Ecosphere: Air, Water, Soil, and Food. New York: John Wiley & Sons Ltd, 2023, pp. 3–13.
10.
BhatMAGedikKGagaEO. Environmental toxicity of emerging micro and nanoplastics: a lesson learned from nanomaterials. In: DarAHNayikGA (eds). Nanotechnology Interventions in Food Packaging and Shelf Life. Abingdon-on-Thames. Oxfordshire: Taylor & Francis (CRC Press), 2022, pp. 311–337.
11.
CaiLWangJPengJWuZTanX. Observation of the degradation of three types of plastic pellets exposed to UV irradiation in three different environments. Sci Total Environ2018; 628-629: 740–747.
12.
BhatMAGedikKGagaEO. A preliminary study on the natural aging behavior of Microplastics in indoor and outdoor environments. Int J Environ Sci Technol2023; 21: 1923–1936.
13.
LorenzCRoscherLMeyerMSHildebrandtLPrumeJLöderMGJPrimpkeSGerdtsG. Spatial distribution of Microplastics in sediments and surface waters of the southern North Sea. Environ Pollut2019; 252: 1719–1729.
14.
LozanoYMLehnertTLinckLTLehmannARilligMC. Microplastic shape, polymer type, and concentration affect soil properties and plant biomass. Front Plant Sci2021; 12: 15.
15.
PatidarKAmbadeBVermaSKMohammadF. Microplastic contamination in water and sediments of Mahanadi River, India: an assessment of ecological risk along rural-urban area. J Environ Manag2023; 348: 119363.
16.
SathyamohanGSewwandiMAmbadeBVithanageM. Sources and circulation of microplastics in the aerosphere-atmospheric transport of microplastics. In: Chapter 8: Microplastics in the Ecosphere: Air, Water, Soil,and Food. New York: Wiley, 2023, pp. 125–146.
17.
KurwadkarSSethiSSMishraPAmbadeB. Unregulated discharge of wastewater in the Mahanadi River Basin: risk evaluation due to occurrence of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon in surface water and sediments. Mar Pollut Bull2022; 179: 113686.
18.
BhatMA. Airborne Microplastic contamination across diverse university indoor environments: a comprehensive ambient analysis. Air Qual Atmos Heal2024; online publ, DOI:10.1007/s11869-024-01548-9.
19.
XuCZhangBGuCShenCYinSAamirMLiF. Are we underestimating the sources of Microplastic pollution in terrestrial environment?J Hazard Mater2020; 400: 123228.
20.
BhatMA. Identification and characterization of Microplastics in indoor EnvironmentsPhD thesis. Eskişehir: Eskişehir Technical University, 2023. DOI: 10.13140/RG.2.2.22164.88960.
21.
KashfiFSRamavandiBArfaeiniaHMohammadiASaeediRDe-la-TorreGEDobaradaranS. Occurrence and exposure assessment of microplastics in indoor dusts of buildings with different applications in Bushehr and Shiraz cities, Iran. Sci Total Environ2022; 829: 154651.
22.
AgeelHKHarradSAbdallahMA-E. Occurrence, human exposure, and risk of microplastics in the indoor environment. Environ Sci Process Impacts2022; 24: 17–31. DOI: 10.1039/d1em00301a.
23.
BhatMAEraslanFNAwadAMalkoçSÜzmezOODöğeroğluTGagaEO. Investigation of indoor and outdoor air quality in a university campus during COVID-19 lock down period. Build Environ2022; 219: 109176.
24.
BhatMAEraslanFNGedikKGagaEO. Impact of textile product emissions : toxicological considerations in assessing indoor air quality and human health. In: MalikJAMaratheS (eds). Ecological and Health Effects of Building Materials. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2021, pp. 505–541.
25.
KacprzakSTijingLD. Microplastics in indoor environment: sources, mitigation and fate. J Environ Chem Eng2022; 10: 107359.
26.
EraslanFNBhatMAGagaEOGedikK. Comprehensive analysis of research trends in volatile organic compounds emitted from building materials : a bibliometric analysis. In: MalikJAMaratheS (eds). Ecological and Health Effects of Building Materials. Cham: Springer Nature Switzerland, 2021, pp. 87–109.
27.
SalthammerT. Microplastics and their additives in the indoor environment. Angew Chemie - Int Ed2022; 61: 1–10.
28.
GuerrantiCMartelliniTPerraGScopetaniCCincinelliA. Microplastics in cosmetics: environmental issues and needs for global bans. Environ Toxicol Pharmacol2019; 68: 75–79.
29.
DuisKCoorsA. Microplastics in the aquatic and terrestrial environment: sources (with a specific focus on personal care products), fate and effects. Environ Sci Eur2016; 28: 2–25.
30.
FangMLiaoZJiXZhuXWangZLuCShiCChenZGeLZhangMDahlgrenRAShangX. Microplastic ingestion from atmospheric deposition during dining/drinking activities. J Hazard Mater2022; 432: 128674.
31.
IbrahimYSTuan AnuarSAzmiAAWan Mohd KhalikWMALehataSHamzahSRIsmailDMaZFDzulkarnaenAZakariaZMustaffaNTuan SharifSELeeYY. Detection of Microplastics in human colectomy specimens. JGH Open2021; 5: 116–121.
32.
RagusaASvelatoASantacroceCCatalanoPNotarstefanoVCarnevaliOPapaFRongiolettiMCABaioccoFDraghiSD’AmoreERinaldoDMattaMGiorginiE. Plasticenta: first evidence of Microplastics in human placenta. Environ Int2021; 146: 106274.
33.
LeslieHAvan VelzenMJMBrandsmaSHVethaakADGarcia-VallejoJJLamoreeMH. Discovery and quantification of plastic particle pollution in human blood. Environ Int2022; 163: 107199.
34.
PaulyJLStegmeierJAllaartHACheneyRTZhangPJMayerGStreckRJ. Inhaled cellulosic and plastic fibers found in human lung tissue. Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev1998; 7: 419–428.
35.
DrisRGasperiJMirandeCMandinCGuerrouacheMLangloisVTassinB. A first overview of textile fibers, including Microplastics, in indoor and outdoor environments. Environ Pollut2017; 221: 453–458.
36.
NematollahiMJZareiFKeshavarziBZareiMMooreFBusquetsRKellyFJ. Microplastic occurrence in settled indoor dust in schools. Sci Total Environ2022; 807: 150984.
37.
GastonEWooMSteeleCSukumaranSAndersonS. Microplastics differ between indoor and outdoor air masses: insights from multiple microscopy methodologies. Appl Spectrosc2020; 74: 1079–1098.
38.
UddinSFowlerSWHabibiNSajidSDupontSBehbehaniM. A preliminary assessment of size-fractionated Microplastics in indoor aerosol—Kuwait’s baseline. Toxics2022; 10: 71.
39.
YaoYGlamoclijaMMurphyAGaoY. Characterization of Microplastics in indoor and ambient air in northern New Jersey. Environ Res2021; 207: 112142.
40.
BhatMA. Unveiling the overlooked threat: macroplastic pollution in indoor markets in an urban city. Case Stud Chem Environ Eng2024; 9: 100558.
41.
CowgerWSteinmetzZGrayAMunnoKLynchJHapichHPrimpkeSDe FrondHRochmanCHerodotouO. Microplastic spectral classification needs an open source community: open specy to the rescue. Anal Chem2021; 93: 7543–7548.
42.
MarkJE. Polymer data book. 2nd ed.Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009.
43.
CabernardLRoscherLLorenzCGerdtsGPrimpkeS. Comparison of Raman and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy for the quantification of Microplastics in the aquatic environment. Environ Sci Technol2018; 52: 13279–13288.
44.
KäpplerAFischerDOberbeckmannSSchernewskiGLabrenzMEichhornKJVoitB. Analysis of environmental Microplastics by vibrational Microspectroscopy: FTIR, Raman or both?Anal Bioanal Chem2016; 408: 8377–8391.
45.
NavaVFrezzottiMLLeoniB. Raman spectroscopy for the analysis of Microplastics in aquatic systems. Appl Spectrosc2021; 75: 1341–1357.
46.
SongZLiuKWangXWeiNZongCLiCJiangCHeYLiD. To what extent are we really free from airborne Microplastics?Sci Total Environ2021; 754: 142118.
47.
Tunahan KayaAYurtseverMÇiftçi BayraktarS. Ubiquitous exposure to microfiber pollution in the air. Eur Phys J Plus. 2018; 133: 488. doi:10.1140/epjp/i2018-12372-7.
48.
LiuKWangXFangTXuPZhuLLiD. Source and potential risk assessment of suspended atmospheric Microplastics in Shanghai. Sci Total Environ2019; 675: 462–471.
49.
CaiLWangJPengJTanZZhanZTanXChenQ. Characteristic of Microplastics in the atmospheric fallout from Dongguan city, China: preliminary research and first evidence. Environ Sci Pollut Res2017; 24: 24928–24935.
50.
BhatMAGagaEOGedikK. How can contamination be prevented during laboratory analysis of atmospheric samples for Microplastics?Environ Monit Assess2024; 196: 159.
51.
BhatMA. Indoor Microplastics and microfibers sources and impacts on human health. In: RathinamoorthyRBalasaraswathiSR (eds). Microfibre Pollution from Textiles Research Advances and Mitigation Strategies. London: CRC Press, 2024, pp. 285–307.
52.
LiuCLiJZhangYWangLDengJGaoYYuLZhangJSunH. Widespread distribution of PET and PC Microplastics in dust in urban China and their estimated human exposure. Environ Int2019; 128: 116–124.
53.
ZhangJWangLKannanK. Microplastics in house dust from 12 countries and associated human exposure. Environ Int2020; 134: 105314.
54.
TianLSkoczynskaESiddhantiDvan PuttenRJLeslieHAGruterGJM. Quantification of polyethylene terephthalate Microplastics and nanoplastics in sands, indoor dust and sludge using a simplified in-matrix depolymerization method. Mar Pollut Bull2022; 175: 113403.
55.
AslamIQadirAAhmadSR. A preliminary assessment of Microplastics in indoor dust of a developing country in South Asia. Environ Monit Assess2022; 194: 340. DOI: 10.1007/s10661-022-09928-3.
56.
ChandaMRoySK. Industrial polymers, specialty polymers, and their applications. 1st ed.London: CRC Press, 2008, DOI: 10.1201/9781420080599.
ZhuJZhangXLiaoKWuPJinH. Microplastics in dust from different indoor environments. Sci Total Environ2022; 833: 155256.
59.
AbbasiSTurnerASharifiRNematollahiMJKeshavarzifardMMoghtaderiT. Microplastics in the school classrooms of Shiraz, Iran. Build Environ2022; 207: 108562.
60.
OsmondG. Zinc white: a review of zinc oxide pigment properties and implications for stability in oil-based paintings. AICCM Bull2012; 33: 20–29.
61.
WeirAWesterhoffPFabriciusLHristovskiKVon GoetzN. Titanium dioxide nanoparticles in food and personal care products. Environ Sci Technol2012; 46: 2242–2250.
62.
Soltani-GerdefaramarziSGhasemiMGhanbarianB. Geogenic and anthropogenic sources identification and ecological risk assessment of heavy metals in the urban soil of Yazd, central Iran. PLoS One2021; 16: 1–14.
63.
AbbasiS. Prevalence and physicochemical characteristics of Microplastics in the sediment and water of Hashilan Wetland, a national heritage in NW Iran. Environ Technol Innov2021; 23: 101782.
64.
AbbasiSKeshavarziBMooreFHopkePKKellyFJDominguezAO. Elemental and magnetic analyses, source identification, and oxidative potential of airborne, passive, and street dust particles in Asaluyeh County, Iran. Sci Total Environ2020; 707: 136132.
65.
ArslanH. Heavy metals in street dust in BURSA, Turkey. J Trace Microprobe Tech2001; 19: 439–445.
66.
GanesanMNallathambiGSrinivasaluS. Fate and transport of microplastics from water sources. Curr Sci2019; 117: 1879–1885.
67.
Ahmady-BirganiHMirnejadHFeizniaSMcQueenKG. Mineralogy and geochemistry of atmospheric particulates in western Iran. Atmos Environ2015; 119: 262–272.
68.
NematollahiMJDehdaranSMooreFKeshavarziB. Potentially toxic elements and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in street dust of Yazd, a central capital city in Iran: contamination level, source identification, and ecological–health risk assessment. Environ Geochem Health2021; 43: 485–519.
69.
KowalczykKŁuczkaKGrzmilBSpychajT. Anticorrosive polyurethane paints with nano- and microsized phosphates. Prog Org Coating2012; 74: 151–157.
70.
LopezGPGallegosMVPelusoMADamonteLCSambethJEBellottiN. ZnO recovered from spent alkaline batteries as antimicrobial additive for waterborne paints. Emergent Mater2023; 6: 147–158.
71.
HahladakisJNVelisCAWeberRIacovidouEPurnellP. An overview of chemical additives present in plastics: migration, release, fate and environmental impact during their use, disposal and recycling. J Hazard Mater2018; 344: 179–199.
72.
BhatMA. Microplastics in indoor deposition samples in university classrooms. Discov Environ2024; 2: 23.
73.
VranicELacevicAMehmedagicAUzunovicA. Formulation ingredients for toothpastes and mouthwashes. Bosn J Basic Med Sci2004; 4: 51–58.
74.
McKeenLW. Fluoropolymers. In: McKeenLW (ed). Permeability Properties of Plastics and Elastomers. New York: William Andrew Publisher, pp. 195–231.
75.
KongMLiuQFanCJiaoQYangJMengFYaoL. Separating sulfur from fuel gas desulfurization gypsum with an oxalic acid solution. ACS Omega2020; 5: 16932–16939.
76.
PengCTangXGongXDaiYSunHWangL. Development and application of a mass spectrometry method for quantifying nylon Microplastics in environment. Anal Chem2020; 92: 13930–13935.
77.
PrataJC. Airborne Microplastics: consequences to human health?Environ Pollut2018; 234: 115–126.
78.
CoxKDCoverntonGADaviesHLDowerJFJuanesFDudasSE. Human consumption of Microplastics. Environ Sci Technol2019; 53: 7068–7074.
79.
BhatMA. A comprehensive characterization of indoor ambient Microplastics in households during the COVID-19 pandemic. Air Qual Atmos Health2024, DOI: 10.1007/s11869-024-01559-6.
