Cooking fumes are among the most important sources of indoor fine and ultrafine particles. Exposure to ultrafine particles may cause pulmonary inflammation and enhance allergic reactions, especially in susceptible individuals. Limiting particular exposure caused by cooking may be important for these individuals. In this study, the number concentration of sub-micrometer particles and their spread during and after the frying of beefsteak were measured in a kitchen and the neighboring room. The kitchen was equipped with a modern extraction hood. The level of particles increased rapidly in the kitchen when frying was started regardless of the use of the hood. The sub-micrometer particles spread rapidly to the neighboring room. In both rooms, the main size fraction of the particles was below 0.5 μm. Continuing the extraction for 30 min after the end of frying gave a significantly reduced number of particles in all size fractions in the neighboring room.
Oberdorster G., Ferin J., Lehnert E.: Correlation between particle size, in vivo particle persistence and lung injury : Environ Health Perspect1994 ; 102(Suppl 5):173-179.
2.
Seaton A., MacNee W., Donaldson K., Godden D.: Particle air pollution and acute health effects: Lancet1995;345:176-178.
3.
Schwartz J., Dockery DW, Neas LM: Is daily mortality associated specifically with fine particles? J Air Waste Manag Assoc1996;46: 927-939.
4.
Oberdorster G., Gelein RM, Ferin J., Weiss B.: Association of particulate air pollution and acute mortality: involvement of ultrafine particles? Inhal Toxicol1995 ;7:111-124.
5.
Oberdorster G.: Pulmonary effects of inhaled ultrafine particles: Int Arch Occup Environ Health2001;74:1-8.
6.
Brown DM, Wilson MR, MacNee W., Stone V., Donaldson K.: Size-dependent proinflammatory effects of ultrafine polystyrene particles: a role for surface area and oxidative stress in the enhanced activity of ultrafines: Toxicol Appl Pharmacol2001;175:191-199.
7.
Dick CA, Brown DM, Donaldson K., Stone V.: The role of free radicals in the toxic and inflammatory effects of four different ultrafine particle types: Inhal Toxicol2003 ;15:39-52.
8.
Li N., Sioutas C., Cho A., Schmitz D., Misra C., Sempf J., Wang M., Oberley T., Froines J., Nel A.: Ultrafine particulate pollutants induce oxidative stress and mitochondrial damage: Environ Health Perspect2003;111:455-460.
9.
Beck-Speier I., Dayal N., Karg E., Maier KL, Schumann G., Schulz H., Semmler M., Takenaka S., Stettmaier K., Bors W., Ghio A., Samet JM, Heyder J.: Oxidative stress and lipid mediators induced in alveolar macrophages by ultrafine particles : Free Radic Biol Med2005; 38:1080-1092.
10.
Alessandrini F., Schulz H., Takenaka S., Lentner B., Karg E., Behrendt H., Jakob T.: Effects of ultrafine carbon particle inhalation on allergic inflammation of the lung: J Allergy Clin Immunol2006;117:824-830.
11.
Abt E., Suh HH, Allen G., Koutrakis P.: Characterization of indoor particle sources: A study conducted in the metropolitan Boston area: Environ Health Perspect2000; 108:35-44.
12.
Dennekamp M. , Howarth S., Dick CA, Cherrie JW, Donaldson K., Seaton A.: Ultrafine particles and nitrogen oxides generated by gas and electric cooking: Occup Environ Med2001;58:511-516.
13.
Tan Z., Zhang Y.: An overwiev of particulate matter in indoor environments: Sources and effectsASHRAE Trans2003;109:89-100.
14.
Wallace LA, Emmerich SJ, Howard-Reed C.: Source strengths of ultrafine and fine particles due to cooking with a gas stove: Environ Sci Technol2004;38:2304-2311.
15.
Afshari A., Matson U., Ekberg LE: Characterization of indoor sources of fine and ultrafine particles: a study conducted in a full-scale chamber: Indoor Air2005;15: 141-150.
16.
Mitsakou C., Housiadas C., Eleftheriadis K., Vratolis S., Helmis C., Asimakopoulos D.: Lung deposition of fine and ultrafine particles outdoors and indoors during a cooking event end a no activity period: Indoor Air2007; 17:143-152.
17.
Chen H., Yang M., Ye S.: A study on genotoxicity of cooking fumes from rapeseed oil: Biomed Environ Sci1992;5:229-235.
18.
Metayer C., Wang Z., Kleinerman RA, Wang L., Brenner AV, Cui H., Cao J., Lubin JH: Cooking oil fumes and risk of lung cancer in women in rural Gansu , China: Lung Cancer2002;35:111-117.
19.
Vainiotalo S., Matveinen K.: Cooking fumes as a hygienic problem in the food and catering industries: Am Ind Hyg Assoc J1993;54: 376-382.
20.
Zhong L., Goldberg MS, Parent M-E., Hanley JA: Risk of developing lung cancer in relation to exposure fumes from Chinese-style cooking: Scand J Work Environ Health1999;25: 309-316.
21.
Svendsen K. , Jensen HN, Sivertsen I., Sjaastad AK: Exposure to cooking fumes in restaurant kitchens in Norway: Ann Occup Hyg2002; 46:395-400.
22.
Svendsen K. , Sjaastad AK, Sivertsen I.: Respiratory symptoms in kitchen workers: Am J Ind Med2003;43:436-439.
23.
Melia RJW , Florey C du V., Altman DG, Swan AV: Association between gas cooking and respiratory disease in childrenBMJ1977;2: 149-152.
24.
Neas LM, Dockery DW, Ware JH, Spengler JD, Speizer FE, Ferris BG: Association of indoor nitrogen dioxide with respiratory symptoms and pulmonary function in children: Am J Epidemiol1991;134:204-219.
25.
Jarvis D., Chinn S., Luczynska C., Burney P.: Association of respiratory symptoms and lung function in young adults with use of domestic gas appliances: Lancet1996;347:426-431.
26.
Wong TW, Yu TS, Liu HJ, Wong AHS: Household gas cooking: a risk factor for respiratory illnesses in preschool children: Arc Dis Child2004;89:631-636.
27.
Goldstein BD , Melia RJ, Chinn S., Florey CV, Clark D., John HH: The relationship between respiratory illness in primary school children and the use of gas for cooking: II. Factors affecting nitrogen dioxide levels in the home: Int J Epidemiol1979;8:339-345.
28.
Willers SM, Brunekreef B., Oldenwening M., Smit HA, Kerkhof M., De Vries H.: Gas cooking, kitchen ventilation and exposure to combustion products: Indoor Air2006;16: 65-73.
29.
Seaton A., Dennekamp M.: Hypothesis: Ill health associated with low concentrations of nitrogen dioxide - an effect of ultrafine particles? Thorax2003;58:1012-1015.
30.
Stevenson KJ : Measurements of carbon monoxide and nitrogen dioxide in British homes using unflued heating or cooking appliances: Tokai J Exp Clin Med1985;10(4):295-301.
31.
Belanger K., Gent JF, Triche EW, Bracken MB, Leaderer BP: Association of indoor nitrogen dioxide exposure with respiratory symptoms in children with asthma: Am J Respir Crit Care Med2006;173(3):297-303.
32.
Flückiger B. , Seifert M., Koller T., Monn C.: Air quality measurements in a model kitchen using gas and electric stoves: Proceedings of Healthy Buildings2001;1:567-572.
33.
Donaldson K. , MacNee W.: Potential mechanisms of adverse pulmonary and cardiovascular effects of particulate air pollution (PM10): Int J Hyg Environ Health2001; 203:411-415.
34.
Ibald-Mulli A., Wichmann HE, Kreyling W., Peters A.: Epidemiological evidence on health effects of ultrafine particles: J Aerosol Med2002 ;15:189-201.
35.
Peters A., Wichmann HE, Tuch T., Heinrich J., Heyder J.: Respiratory effects are associated with the number of ultrafine particles : Am J Respir Crit Care Med1997;155:1376-1383.
36.
Von Klot S. , Wolke G., Tuch T., Heinrich J., Dockery DW, Schwartz J., Kreyling WG, Wichmann HE, Peters A.: Increased asthma medication use in association with ambient fine and ultrafine particles: Eur Respir J2002;20:691-702.
37.
Zhong L., Goldberg MS, Gao YT, Jin F.: Lung cancer and indoor air pollution arising from Chinese-style cooking among non-smoking women living in Shanghai, China: Epidemiology1999;10:488-494.
38.
Sivertsen I. , Sjaastad AK, Svendsen K., Krøkje A.: Alveolar macrophages as bio-markers of pulmonary irritation in kitchen workers: Ann Occup Hyg2002;46:713-717.
39.
Borgan JK, Kristoffersen, LB: Dødelighet i yrkes og sosioøkonomiske grupper 1970-1980 [Mortality by occupation and socio-economic group in Norway 1970-1980]: Norsk statistikk1986; Oslo: Statistisk sentralbyrå. (In Norwegian)
40.
Borgan JK: Prester og fysioterapeuter lever lengst [Priests and physiotherapists live longest]. Samfunnsspeilet2004;3:2-8. (In Norwegian)
