An indoor air quality survey was conducted at selected indoor environments in the Department of Physics and Electrical Engineering of the University of Bremen, Germany, during August 2005. The mean indoor/ outdoor (I/O) ratios of pollutants appeared to be higher than 1.0 for most volatile organic compounds (VOCs). Apart from direct emissions from indoor materials and infiltration of outdoor air, environmental tobacco smoke (ETS) was a dominant factor in indoor pollution. Pollutants which were commonly associated with cleaning products and materials, including monoterpenes, aldehydes and acetone exhibited general trends of higher concentrations indoors compared to outdoor levels. Indoor concentrations of many VOCs were found to be 2—10 times higher during weekdays as compared to the weekend, exhibiting a strong correlation with human activities. A comparison with previous studies on the health risks due to selected VOCs indicates that long-term exposure to the peak values reported in this study has potential to develop adverse health effects to the occupants whereby reducing the efficiency in the workplace.
Jones AP: Indoor air quality and health: Atmos Environ1999;33:4535-4564.
2.
Lee SC, Li WM, Ao CH: Investigation of indoor air quality at residential homes in Hong Kong-case study: Atmos Environ2002; 36:225-237.
3.
Li WM, Lee SC, Chan LY: Indoor air quality at nine shopping malls in Hong Kong: Sci Total Environ2001;273:27-40.
4.
Guo J., Rahn KA, Zhuang G.: A mechanism for the increase of pollution elements in dust storms inBeijing: Atmos Environ2004;38: 855-862.
5.
Morello-Frosch RA, Woodruff TJ, Axelrad DA, Caldwell JC: Air toxics and health risks inCalifornia: the public health implications of outdoor concentrations: Risk Analy2000; 20:273-291.
6.
DeBortoli M. , Knoppel H., Pecchio E., Peil A., Rogora L., Schauenburg H., Schlitt H., Vissers H.: Concentrations of selected organic pollutants in indoor and outdoor air in northern Italy : Environ Int1986;12:343-350.
7.
Lebret E., van del Wiel HJ, Bos H., Noij D., Boleij JSM: Volatile organic compounds in Dutch homes: Environ Int1986; 12:323-332.
8.
Schlink U., Rehwagen M., Damm M., Richter M., Borte M., Herbarth O.: Seasonal cycle of indoor-VOCs: comparison of apartments and cities : Atmos Environ2004;38: 1181-1190.
9.
Wallace LAHuman exposure to volatile organic pollutants implications for indoor air studies: Ann Rev Energy Environ2001;26: 269-301.
10.
Wallace LAEnvironmental exposure to benzene: an update: Environ Health Perspect1996;104:1129-1136.
11.
Wallace LA, Nelson WC, Ziegenfus R., Pellizzari EDThe Los Angeles TEAM study: personal exposures, indoor-outdoor air concentrations and breath concentrations of 25 volatile organic compounds : J Expos Anal Environ Epidemiol1991;1:37-73.
12.
Wallace LA, Pellizzari ED, Hartwell TD, Sparacino C., Whitmore R., Sheldon L., Zelon H., Perritt R.The TEAM study: personal exposures to toxic substances in air, drinking water, and breath of 400 residents of New Jersey, North Carolina, and North Dakota : Environ Res1987;43:290-307.
13.
IARC (International Agency for Research on Cancer): Overall evaluations on carcinogenicity to humans : IARC Monographs, Vol. 1: Lyon, France; 1998.
14.
Dockery DW, Spengler JD: Indoor-outdoor relationships of respirable sulphates and particles: Atmos Environ1981;15:335-343.
15.
de Gouw J., Warneke C., Karl T., Eerdekens G., van der Veen C., Fall R.: Sensitivity and specificity of atmospheric trace gas detection by proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry: Int J Mass Spectrom2003 ;223-224: 365-382.
16.
Warneke C., De Gouw JA, Kuster WC, Goldan PD, Fall R.Validation of atmospheric VOC measurements by proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry using a gas-chromatographic preseparation method: Environ Sci Technol2003;37:2494-2501.
17.
Solomon SJ, Custer T., Schade G., Soares Dias AP, Burrows J.: Atmospheric methanol measurement using selective catalytic methanol to formaldehyde conversion: Atmos Chem Phys2005;5:2787-2796.
18.
Jordan A., Hansel A., Holzinger R., Lindinger W.: Acetonitrile and benzene in the breath of smokers and nonsmokers investigated by Proton-Transfer Reaction Mass Spectrometry (PTR-MS): Int J Mass Spectrom Ion Processes1995;148:L1-L3.
19.
Prazeller P., Karl T., Jordan A., Holzinger, R., Hansel A., Lindinger W.: Quantification of passive smoking using proton-transfer-reaction mass spectrometry: Int J Mass Spectrom1998; 178:L1-L4.
20.
Morrison GC , Nazaroff WW: Ozone interactions with carpet: secondary emissions of aldehydes: Environ Sci Technol2002;36: 2185-2192.
21.
Shaughnessy RJ, McDaniels TJ, Weschler CJ: Indoor chemistry: ozone and volatile organic compounds found in tobacco smoke: Environ Sci Technol2001;35:2758-2764.
22.
Khoder MI, Shakour AA, Farag SA, Hameed AAA: Indoor and outdoor formaldehyde concentrations in homes in residential areas in Greater Cairo: J Environ Monit2000; 2:123-126.
23.
Brickus LSR , Cardoso JN, Neto FRDA: Distributions of indoor and outdoor air pollutants in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil: Implications to indoor air quality in Bayside offices: Environ Sci Technol1998 ;32: 3485-3490.
24.
Bernhard CA, Kirchner S., Knutti R., Lagoudi A.: Volatile organic compounds in 56 European office buildings In: Proceedings of the Healthy Buildings'95, Milan1995;3:1347-1352.
25.
Karacic V., Skender L., Bosner-Cucancic B., Bogadi-Sare A.: Possible genotoxicity in low-level benzene exposure: Am J Ind Med1995; 27:379-388.
26.
WHO (World Health Organisation): Updating and revision of the air quality guidelines for Europe, Meeting Report, 11-13 January, 1993.
27.
Guo H., Lee SC, Li WM, Cao JJ: Source characterization of BTEX in indoor microenvironments in Hong Kong: Atmos Environ2003;37:73-82.
28.
Parreira FV , de Carvalho CR, Cardeal Z de L.: Evaluation of indoor exposition to benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene, and styrene by passive sampling with a solid-phase micro-extraction device: J Chromato Sci2002 ;40: 122-126.
29.
ATSDR (Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry).Toxicological profile for styrene. U.S. Public Health Service, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services , Atlanta, GA; 1992.
30.
Koskinen M. , Vodicka P., Hemminki K.: Identification of 1-adenine DNA adducts in workers occupationally exposed to styrene: J Occ and Environ Med2001;43(8):694-700.
31.
Straif K., Baan R., Cogliano V.: Butadiene or styrene or butadiene and styrene or else?: Occup and Environ Med, 2006; 63:157-158; doi:10.1136/oem.2005.023986.
32.
Santos-Burgoa C., Matanoski GM, Zeger S., Schwartz L.: Lymphohematopoietic cancer in styrene-butadiene polymerization workers: American J Epidem1992;136(7):843-854.
33.
Matanoski M. , Elliott E., Tao X., Francis M., Correa-Villasenor A., Santos-Burgoa, C.: Lymphohematopoietic cancers and butadiene and styrene exposure in synthetic rubber manufacture : Ann NY Acad Sci, 26 December, 1997;837(1):157-169.
34.
Nazaroff WW , Weschler CJ: Cleaning products and air fresheners: exposure to primary and secondary air pollutants: Atmos Environ2004;38:2841-2865.
35.
Wallace LA: Personal exposure to 25 volatile organic compounds: EPA's 1987 Team Study in Los Angeles, California, Toxicology and Industrial Health1991;7:203-208.
36.
Warneke C., Karl T., Judmaier H., Hansel A., Jordan A., Lindinger W., Crutzen PJ: Acetone, methanol, and other partially oxidized volatile organic emissions from dead plant matter by abiological processes: Significance for atmospheric HOx chemistry: Global Biogeochem Cycles1999 ;13:9-18.
37.
Crump DR, Gardiner D.: Sources and concentrations of aldehydes and ketones in indoor environments in the UK: Environ Int1989; 15:455-462.
38.
Zhang J., He Q., Lioy PJ: Characteristics of aldehydes: concentrations, sources, and exposures for indoor and outdoor residential microenvironments: Environ Sci Technol1994; 28:146-152.
39.
Sheldon L., Handy RW, Hartwell TD, Whitmore RW, Zelon HS, Pellizzari ED, Wallace L.: Indoor air quality in public buildings: Volumes II and II, EPA Report EPA/600/6-88/009a and EPA/600/6-88/009b; 1998.
40.
Anderson I., Lundquist GR, Mølhave L.: Indoor air pollution due to chipboard used as a construction material: Atmos Environ1995; 9:1121-1127.
41.
Prescher KE , Jander K.Formaldehyde in indoor air, Bundesgesundheitsblatt, 1987;30: 273-278.
42.
Niemala R., Vaino H.: Formaldehyde exposure in work and the general environment: Scand J Work Environ Health1985;7:95-100.
43.
Morgan KT: A brief review of formaldehyde carcinogenesis in relation to rat nasal pathology and human health risk assessment: Toxicol Pathol1997;25:291-307.
44.
Vaughan TL, Strader C., Davis S., Daling JR: Formaldehyde and cancers of the pharynx, sinus, and nasal cavity: II. Residential exposures, Int J Cancer1986 ;38:685-688.
45.
McClellan RO , Jackson TE: Carcinogenic responses to air pollutants In: Air Pollution and Health, 1999, (Holgate ST , Samet JM , Koren HS, Maynard RL (eds.)), pp. 381-413.
46.
McClellan RO : Health risk assessments and regulatory considerations for air pollutants In: Air Pollutants and the Respiratory Tract , 1999 (Swift DL, Foster WM, (eds.)). In series: Lung Biology in Health and Disease , pp. 289-338.
47.
Tornqvist M. , Ehrenberg L.: On cancer risk estimation of urban air pollution: Environ Health Perspect Vol. 102, Supplement 4: Risk Assessment of Urban Air: Emissions, Exposure, Risk Identification, and Risk Quantitation, 1994, pp. 173-182. doi:10.2307/ 3431949.
48.
Iarc: Press Release No 153 (15 June 2004). IARC Classifies Formaldehyde as Carcinogenic to Humans.
49.
Koeck M., Pichler-Semmelrock FP, Schlacher R.: Formaldehyde - study of indoor air pollution in Austria: Central European J Public Health1997;5:127-130.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
