Mechanisms through which static magnetic fields interact with living systems are described. These mechanisms include electrodynamic interactions with moving ionic charges (blood flow and nerve impulse conduction), magnetomechanical interactions (orientation and translation of molecular structures), and interactions with electronic spin states in charge transfer reactions (photo-induced electron transfer in photosynthesis). A general summary is also presented of the biological effects of static magnetic fields. There is convincing experimental evidence for magnetoreception mechanisms in several classes of lower organisms, including bacteria and marine organisms. However, in more highly evolved species of animals, there is no evidence that the interactions of static magnetic fields with flux densities up to 2 Tesla (1 Tesla (T) = 104 Gauss) produce either behavioral or physiological alterations. These results, based on controlled studies with laboratory animals, are consistent with the outcome of recent epidemiological surveys on human populations exposed occupationally to static magnetic fields.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
TenfordeT.S., Magnetic field applications in modern technology and medicine, in: Biological Effects of Static and Extremely Low Frequency Magnetic Fields (ed. BernhardtJ.H.), pp. 23–35 (MMV Medizin Verlag, Munich F.R.G., 1986).
2.
TenfordeT.S., Mechanisms for biological effects of magnetic fields, in: Biological Effects and Dosimetry of Static and ELF Electromagnetic Fields (eds. Gran-dolfoM., MichaelsonS.M. and RindiA.), pp. 71–92 (Plenum Press, New York, 1985).
3.
TenfordeT.S., Biological effects of stationary magnetic fields, in: Biological Effects and Dosimetry of Static and ELF Electromagnetic Fields (eds. GrandolfoM., MichaelsonS.M. and RindiA.), pp. 93–127 (Plenum Press, New York, 1985).
4.
FrankelR.P., Biological effects of static magnetic fields, in: Handbook of Biological Effects of Electromagnetic Fields (eds. PolkC. and PostowE.), pp. 169–196 (Press CRC, Boca Raton FL, 1986).
5.
TenfordeT.S. and BudingerT.F., Biological effects and physical safety aspects of NMR imaging and in vivo spectroscopy, in: NMR in Medicine: Instrumentation and Clinical Applications (eds. ThomasS.R. and DixonR.L.), pp. 493–548 (Amer. Assoc. of Physicists in Medicine, New York, 1986).
6.
TenfordeT.S., Interaction mechanisms, biological effects and biomedical applications of static and extremely-low-frequency magnetic fields, in: Proc. Twenty-Second Annual Meeting of the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements: Nonionizing Radiations and Ultrasound, 2–3 April 1986, pp. 181–217. (Press NCRP, Bethesda MD 1988).
7.
TenfordeT.S., Biological responses to static and time-varying magnetic fields, in: Electromagnetic Interaction with Biological Systems (ed. LinJ.C.), pp. 83–107 (Plenum Press, New York, 1989).
8.
BlankenshipR.E.M., SchaafsmaTJ. and ParsonW.W., Magnetic field effect on radical pair intermediates in bacterial photosynthesis, Biochim. Biophys. Acta461 (1977) 297.
9.
BeischerD.E. and KneptonJ.C.Jr., Influence of strong magnetic fields on the electrocardiograms of squirrel monkeys(Saimiri sciureus), Aerospace Med.35 (1964) 939.
10.
TogawaT., OkaiO. and OshimaM., Observation of blood flow E.M.F. in externally applied strong magnetic fields by surface electrodes, Med. Biol. Eng.5 (1967) 169.
11.
BeischerD.E., Vectorcardiogram and aortic blood flow of squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) in a strong superconductive electromagnet, in: Biological Effects of Magnetic Fields, Vol. 2, pp. 241–259 (Plenum Press, New York, 1969).
12.
GaffeyC.T. and TenfordeT.S., Alterations in the rat electrocardiogram induced by stationary magnetic fields, Bioelectromagnetics2 (1981) 357.
13.
TenfordeT.S., GaffeyC.T., MoyerB.R. and BudingerT.F., Cardiovascular alterations in Macaca monkeys exposed to stationary magnetic fields: experimental observations and theoretical analysis, Bioelectromagnetics4 (1983) 1.
14.
TenfordeT.S., GaffeyC.T. and RaybournM.S., Influence of stationary magnetic fields on ionic conduction processes in biological systems, in: Proc. Sixth Symposium and Technical Exhibition on Electromagnetic Compatibility (ed. DvořákT.), pp. 205–210 (Zurich, Switzerland, 5-7 March 1985).
15.
JehensonP., DubocD., LavergneT., GuizeL., GuérinF., DegeorgesM. and SyrotaA., Change in human cardiac rhythm induced by a 2-T static magnetic field, Radiology166 (1988) 227.
16.
TenfordeT.S., Electroreception and magnetoreception in simple and complex organisms, Bioelectromagnetics10 (1989) 215.
17.
KalmijnA.J., Electric and magnetic field detection in elasmobranch fish, Science218 (1982) 916–918.
FrankelR.B., BlakemoreR.P. and WolfeR.S., Magnetite in freshwater magnetotactic bacteria, Science203 (1979) 1355.
20.
BlakemoreR.P., FrankelR.B. and KalmijnA.J., South-seeking magnetotactic bacteria in the Southern Hemisphere, Nature286 (1980) 384.
21.
FrankelR.B., BlakemoreR.P., de Araujo TorresF.F. and EsquivalD.M.S., Magnetotactic bacteria at the geomagnetic equator, Science212 (1981) 1269.
22.
KalmijnA.J. and BlakemoreR.P., The magnetic behavior of mud bacteria, in: Animal Migration, Navigation and Homing (eds. Schmidt-KoenigK. and KeetonW.T.), pp. 344–345 (Springer-Verlag, New York, 1978).
23.
PetersenN., von DobeneckT. and ValiH., Fossil bacterial magnetite in deep-sea sediments from the South Atlantic Ocean, Nature320 (1986) 611.
24.
StolzJ.F., S.ChangB.R. and KirschvinkJ.L., Magnetotactic bacteria and single-domain magnetite in hemipelagic sediments, Nature321 (1986) 849.
25.
KeetonW.T., Magnets interfere with pigeon homing, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA)68 (1971) 102.
26.
WiltschkoW. and WiltschkoR., Magnetic compass of European robins, Science176 (1972) 62.
27.
EmlenS.T., WiltschkoW., DemongN.J., WiltschkoR. and BergmanS., Magnetic direction finding: evidence for its use in migratory indigo buntings, Science193 (1976) 505.
28.
BookmanM.A., Sensitivity of the homing pigeon to an earth-strength magnetic field, Nature267 (1977) 340–342.
29.
YorkeE.D., Sensitivity of pigeons to small magnetic field variations, J. Theor. Biol.89 (1981) 533.
30.
WalcottC., GouldJ.L. and KirschvinkJ.L., Pigeons have magnets, Science205 (1979) 1027–1029.
31.
PrestiD. and PettigrewJ.D., Ferromagnetic coupling to muscle receptors as a basis for geomagnetic field sensitivity in animals, Nature285 (1980) 99.
32.
JungermanR.L. and RosenblumB., Magnetic induction for the sensing of magnetic fields by animals - an analysis, J. Theor. Biol.87 (1980) 25.
33.
MooreB.R., Magnetic fields and orientation in homing pigeons: experiments of the late Keeton W.T., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. (USA)85 (1988) 4907.
34.
KrischvinkJ.L., JonesD.S. and McFaddenB.J., Magnetite Biomineralization and Magnetoreception in Animals: New A. Biomagnetism (Plenum Press, New York, 1985).
35.
WalkerM.M. and BittermanM.E., Conditioned responding to magnetic fields by honeybees, J. Comp. Physiol. A157 (1985) 67.
36.
WalkerM.M. and BittermanM.E., Conditioning analysis of magnetoreception in honeybees, Bioelectromagnetics10 (1989) 261.
37.
KirschvinkJ.L., DizonA.E. and WestphalJ.A., Evidence from strandings for geomagnetic sensitivity in CetaceansJ. Exp. Biol.120 (1986) 1.
38.
PhillipsJ.B., Two magnetoreception pathways in a migratory salamander, Science233 (1986) 765.
39.
TaylorP.B., Experimental evidence for geomagnetic orientation in juvenile salmon, Oncorhynchus tschawytscha, J. Fish Biol. 28 (1986) 607.
40.
BakerR.R., Goal orientation by blindfolded humans after long distance displacement: possible involvement of a magnetic sense, Science210 (1980) 555.
41.
GouldJ.L. and AbleK.P., Human homing: an elusive phenomenon, Science214 (1981) 1061.
42.
FildesB.N., O'LoughlinB.J. and BradshawJ.L., Human orientation with restricted sensory information: no evidence for magnetic sensitivity, Perception13 (1984) 229.
43.
VyalovA.M., Clinico-hygienic and experimental data on the effects of magnetic fields under industrial conditions, in: Influence of Magnetic Fields on Biological Objects (ed. KholodovY.A.) Rep. No. JPRS 63038, pp. 163–174. (National Technical Information Service, Springfield, Virginia, 1974).
44.
MarshJ.L., ArmstrongT.J., JacobsonA.P. and SmithR.G., Health effect of occupational exposure to steady magnetic fields, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.43 (1982) 387.
45.
BarregårdL., JarvholmB. and UngethumE., Cancer among workers exposed to strong static magnetic fields, Lancet2(8460) (1985) 892.
46.
BudingerT.F., BristolK.S., YenC.K. and WongP., Biological effects of static magnetic fields, in: Proc. Soc. Magnetic Resonance in Medicine, Third Annual Meeting, pp. 113–114 (New York, 4-6 August 1984).
47.
MilhamS.Jr., Mortality in aluminium reduction plant workers, J. Occup. Med.21 (1979) 475.
48.
RocketteH.E. and ArenaV.C., Mortality studies of aluminium reduction plant workers: potroom and carbon department, J. Occup. Med.25 (1983) 549.
49.
MurJ.M., MoulinJ.J., Meyer-BischC., MassinN., CoulonJ.P. and LoulergueJ., Mortality of aluminium reduction plant workers in France, Int. J. Epidemiol.16 (1987) 257.
50.
NewP.F.J., RosenB.R., BradyT.J., BuonannoF.S., KistlerJ.P., BurtC.T., HinshawW.S., NewhouseJ.H., PohostG.M. and TaverasJ.M., Potential hazards and artifacts of ferromagnetic and nonferromagnetic surgical and dental materials and devices in magnetic resonance imaging, Radiology147 (1983) 139.
51.
PavlicekW., GeisingerM., CastleL., BorkowskiG.P., MeaneyT.F., BreamB.L. and GallagherJ.H., The effects of nuclear magnetic resonance on patients with cardiac pacemakers, Radiology147 (1983) 149.
52.
PanofskyW.K.H, Limits on human exposure in static magnetic fields, Letter to Stanford Linear Accelerator Staff, Stanford, California, 6 May 1970.
53.
BernhardtJ.H, HaubrichH.J., NewiG., KrauseN. and SchneiderK.H., Limits for electric and magnetic fields in DIN VDE standards: considerations for the range 0 to 10 kHz, in: Proc. Int. Conf. on Large High Voltage Electric Systems (Paris, France, 27 August-4 September 1986).
54.
National Radiological Protection Board, Advice on the Protection of Workers and Members of the Public from the Possible Hazards of Electric and Magnetic Fields with Frequencies Below 300 GHz: Consultative A. Document (Oxon, England, May 1986).
55.
Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, Working in Magnetic Fields, Health and Safety Manual Supplement 26.16 (Livermore, California, 27 June 1985).
56.
MillerG., Exposure guidelines for magnetic fields, Am. Ind. Hyg. Assoc. J.48 (1987) 957.
57.
American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hy-gienists, Threshold Limit Values and Biological Exposure Indices for 1989-1990 (American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists, Cincinnati OH, 1989).
