Immediate and delayed effects of everyday racial discrimination on mental health among Black college students: A mixed-methods approach

Abstract

Experiences of racial discrimination significantly contribute to both mental and physical health outcomes. In this mixed-methods study, we examine both the immediate and delayed effect of discrimination experienced in daily life. Black students at a predominantly White university reported instances of racial discrimination, affect, anxiety, and depression several times per day over 4 weeks (N = 114); this was followed by qualitative focus groups (N = 25). Reporting an instance of discrimination corresponded with an acute decline in psychological wellbeing (higher negative affect, anxiety, and depression), consistent with previous work. However, this effect did not carry forward to later assessments during the same day or the following day as expected. Instead, positive affect temporarily increased in the hours following experiences of discrimination. Qualitative focus groups revealed social support, emotional reflection and processing, and feelings of taking action as important factors contributing to this bump in positive affect.

Keywords

racial discrimination mental health coping intensive longitudinal methods mixed methods

Get full access to this article

View all access options for this article.

References

Adams

W. C.

(2015). Conducting semi-structured interviews. In Newcomer

K. E.

Hatry

H. P.

Wholey

J. S.

(Eds.), Handbook of practical program evaluation (pp. 492–505). John Wiley & Sons, Inc. https://doi.org/10.1002/9781119171386.ch19

Alhojailan

(2012). Thematic analysis: A critical review of its process and evaluation. West East Journal of Social Sciences, 1, 9.

Almalki

(2016). Integrating quantitative and qualitative data in mixed methods research—Challenges and benefits. Journal of Education and Learning, 5, 288–296.

Arend

M. G.

Schäfer

(2019). Statistical power in two-level models: A tutorial based on Monte Carlo simulation. Psychological Methods, 24(1), 1–19.

Assari

Lee

D. B.

Nicklett

E. J.

Moghani Lankarani

Piette

J. D.

Aikens

J. E.

(2017). Racial discrimination in health care is associated with worse glycemic control among Black men but not Black women with type 2 diabetes. Frontiers in Public Health, 5. https://www.frontiersin.org/article/10.3389/fpubh.2017.00235

Bartón

(2020). MuMIn: Multi-model inference (Version 1.43.17) [R package]. https://CRAN.R-project.org/package=MuMIn.

Basford

T. E.

Offermann

L. R.

Behrend

T. S.

(2014). Do you see what I see? Perceptions of gender microaggressions in the workplace. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 38(3), 340–349. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684313511420

Bates

Mächler

Bolker

Walker

(2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. https://doi.org/10.18637/jss.v067.i01

Bennett

G. G.

Merritt

M. M.

Edwards

C. L.

Sollers

J. J.

(2004). Perceived racism and affective responses to ambiguous interpersonal interactions among African American men. American Behavioral Scientist, 47(7), 963–976. https://doi.org/10.1177/0002764203261070

10.

Bottrell

(2009). Understanding ‘marginal’ perspectives: Towards a social theory of resilience. Qualitative Social Work, 8(3), 321–339. https://doi.org/10.1177/1473325009337840

11.

Bowleg

English

del Rio-Gonzalez

A. M.

Burkholder

G. J.

Teti

Tschann

J. M.

(2016). Measuring the pros and cons of what it means to be a Black man: Development and validation of the Black Men’s Experiences Scale (BMES). Psychology of Men & Masculinity, 17(2), 177–188. https://doi.org/10.1037/men0000026

12.

Brondolo

Brady ver Halen

Pencille

Beatty

Contrada

R. J.

(2009). Coping with racism: A selective review of the literature and a theoretical and methodological critique. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 32, 64–88. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-008-9193-0

13.

Brosschot

J. F.

Gerin

Thayer

J. F.

(2006). The perseverative cognition hypothesis: A review of worry, prolonged stress-related physiological activation, and health. Journal of Psychosomatic Research, 60(2), 113–124. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2005.06.074

14.

Brown

D. L.

Tylka

T. L.

(2011). Racial discrimination and resilience in African American young adults: Examining racial socialization as a moderator. Journal of Black Psychology, 37(3), 259–285. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798410390689

15.

Busse

Yim

I. S.

Campos

Marshburn

C. K.

(2017). Discrimination and the HPA axis: Current evidence and future directions. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 40(4), 539–552. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10865-017-9830-6

16.

Chou

Asnaani

Hofmann

S. G.

(2012). Perception of racial discrimination and psychopathology across three U.S. ethnic minority groups. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(1), 74–81. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0025432

17.

Clark

Anderson

N. B.

Clark

V. R.

Williams

D. R.

(1999). Racism as a stressor for African Americans: A biopsychosocial model. American Psychologist, 54(10), 805–816. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.54.10.805

18.

Crenshaw

(1989). Demarginalizing the intersection of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 1, 139–167.

19.

Creswell

J. W.

Shope

Clark

V. L. P.

Green

D. O.

(2006). How interpretive qualitative research extends mixed methods research. Research in the Schools, 13, 1–11.

20.

Cuevas

A. G.

Boen

(2021). Tip of the iceberg: Measuring racial discrimination in studies of health. Stress and Health, 37(5), 1043–1050. https://doi.org/10.1002/smi.3047

21.

Cuevas

A. G.

O’Brien

Saha

(2016). African American experiences in healthcare: “I always feel like I’m getting skipped over.” Health Psychology, 35(9), 987–995. https://doi.org/10.1037/hea0000368

22.

Davenport

M. A.

Landor

A. M.

Zeiders

K. H.

Sarsar

E. D.

Flores

(2020). Within-person associations between racial microaggressions and sleep among African American and Latinx young adults. Journal of Sleep Research, 30(4), e13226. https://doi.org/10.1111/jsr.13226

23.

Douglass

Mirpuri

English

Yip

(2016). “They were just making jokes”: Ethnic/racial teasing and discrimination among adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 22(1), 69–82. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000041

24.

Doyle

Brady

A.-M.

Byrne

(2009). An overview of mixed methods research. Journal of Research in Nursing, 14(2), 175–185. https://doi.org/10.1177/1744987108093962

25.

English

Lambert

S. F.

Tynes

B. M.

Bowleg

Zea

M. C.

Howard

L. C.

(2020). Daily multidimensional racial discrimination among Black U.S. American adolescents. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 66, 101068. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.appdev.2019.101068

26.

Essed

P. J. M.

(1991). Understanding everyday racism. Sage.

27.

Fetters

M. D.

Curry

L. A.

Creswell

J. W.

(2013). Achieving integration in mixed methods designs—Principles and practices. Health Services Research, 48, 2134–2156. https://doi.org/10.1111/1475-6773.12117

28.

Fleming

C. M.

Lamont

Welburn

J. S.

(2012). African Americans respond to stigmatization: The meanings and salience of confronting, deflecting conflict, educating the ignorant and ‘managing the self.’ Ethnic and Racial Studies, 35(3), 400–417. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2011.589527

29.

Forsyth

J. M.

Carter

R. T.

(2014). Development and preliminary validation of the Racism-Related Coping Scale. Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research, Practice, and Policy, 6(6), 632–643. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0036702

30.

García

Serpas

Torres

(2020). Taking it to heart: Preliminary investigation on the cardiovascular effects of racial/ethnic microaggressions in Latinx. Social Behavioral Research and Practice, 5(1), 1–7. https://doi.org/10.17140/SBRPOJ-5-120

31.

Gelman

Hill

(2007). Data analysis using regression and multilevel/hierarchical models. Cambridge University Press.

32.

Goodwin

S. A.

Williams

K. D.

Carter-Sowell

A. R.

(2010). The psychological sting of stigma: The costs of attributing ostracism to racism. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(4), 612–618. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.02.002

33.

Goosby

B. J.

Cheadle

J. E.

Mitchell

(2018). Stress-related biosocial mechanisms of discrimination and African American health inequities. Annual Review of Sociology, 44, 319–340. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-soc-060116-053403

34.

Harnois

C. E.

Ifatunji

(2011). Gendered measures, gendered models: Toward an intersectional analysis of interpersonal racial discrimination. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 34(6), 1006–1028. https://doi.org/10.1080/01419870.2010.516836

35.

Himmelstein

M. S.

Young

D. M.

Sanchez

D. T.

Jackson

J. S.

(2015). Vigilance in the discrimination-stress model for Black Americans. Psychology & Health, 30(3), 253–267. https://doi.org/10.1080/08870446.2014.966104

36.

Hines

A. L.

Pollack

C. E.

LaVeist

T. A.

Thorpe

R. J.

Jr. (2018). Race, vigilant coping strategy, and hypertension in an integrated community. American Journal of Hypertension, 31(2), 197–204. https://doi.org/10.1093/ajh/hpx164

37.

Hoggard

L. S.

Byrd

C. M.

Sellers

R. M.

(2012). Comparison of African American college students’ coping with racially and nonracially stressful events. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 18(4), 329–339. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029437

38.

Hoggard

L. S.

Byrd

C. M.

Sellers

R. M.

(2015). The lagged effects of racial discrimination on depressive symptomology and interactions with racial identity. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 62(2), 216–225. https://doi.org/10.1037/cou0000069

39.

Hoggard

L. S.

Jones

S. C. T.

Sellers

R. M.

(2017). Racial cues and racial identity: Implications for how African Americans experience and respond to racial discrimination. Journal of Black Psychology, 43(4), 409–432. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798416651033

40.

Holloway

Varner

(in press). Forms and frequency of vicarious racial discrimination and African American parents’ health. Social Science & Medicine, 114266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2021.114266

41.

Huynh

V. W.

Huynh

Q.-L.

Stein

M.-P.

(2017). Not just sticks and stones: Indirect ethnic discrimination leads to greater physiological reactivity. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 23(3), 425–434. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000138

42.

Joseph

N. T.

Peterson

L. M.

Gordon

Kamarck

T. W.

(2020). The double burden of racial discrimination in daily-life moments: Increases in negative emotions and depletion of psychosocial resources among emerging adult African Americans. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 27(2), 234–244. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000337

43.

Krieger

Van Wye

Huynh

Waterman

P. D.

Maduro

Gwynn

R. C.

Barbot

Bassett

M. T.

(2020). Structural racism, historical redlining, and risk of preterm birth in New York City, 2013–2017. American Journal of Public Health, 110(7), 1046–1053. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2020.305656

44.

Kubiliene

Yan

M. C.

Kumsa

M. K.

Burman

(2015). The response of youth to racial discrimination: Implications for resilience theory. Journal of Youth Studies, 18(3), 338–356. https://doi.org/10.1080/13676261.2014.963535

45.

Lamont

Welburn

J. S.

Fleming

C. M.

(2013). Responses to discrimination and social resilience under neo-liberalism. In Hall

P. A.

Lamont

(Eds.), Social resilience in the neoliberal age (pp. 129–157). Cambridge University Press.

46.

Landor

A. M.

McNeil Smith

(2019). Skin-tone trauma: Historical and contemporary influences on the health and interpersonal outcomes of African Americans. Perspectives on Psychological Science, 14(5), 797–815. https://doi.org/10.1177/1745691619851781

47.

LaVeist

T. A.

Thorpe

R. J.

Pierre

Mance

G. A.

Williams

D. R.

(2014). The relationships among vigilant coping style, race, and depression. Journal of Social Issues, 70(2), 241–255. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12058

48.

Lazarus

R. S.

Folkman

(1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. Springer.

49.

Lepore

S. J.

Greenberg

M. A.

Bruno

Smyth

J. M.

(2002). Expressive writing and health: Self-regulation of emotion-related experience, physiology, and behavior. In Lepore

S. J.

Smyth

J. M.

(Eds.), The writing cure: How expressive writing promotes health and emotional well-being (pp. 99–117). American Psychological Association.

50.

Lockwood

K. G.

Marsland

A. L.

Matthews

K. A.

Gianaros

P. J.

(2018). Perceived discrimination and cardiovascular health disparities: A multisystem review and health neuroscience perspective. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, 1428(1), 170–207. https://doi.org/10.1111/nyas.13939

51.

Louie

Upenieks

(2022). Vicarious discrimination, psychosocial resources, and mental health among Black Americans. Social Psychology Quarterly, 85(2), 187–209. https://doi.org/10.1177/01902725221079279

52.

Masten

C. L.

Telzer

E. H.

Eisenberger

N. I.

(2010). An fMRI investigation of attributing negative social treatment to racial discrimination. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, 23(5), 1042–1051. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2010.21520

53.

Matuschek

Kliegl

Vasishth

Baayen

Bates

(2017). Balancing Type I error and power in linear mixed models. Journal of Memory and Language, 94, 305–315. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jml.2017.01.001

54.

Mays

V. M.

Cochran

S. D.

Barnes

N. W.

(2007). Race, race-based discrimination, and health outcomes among African Americans. Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 201–225. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.57.102904.190212

55.

Miranda

Polanco-Roman

Tsypes

Valderrama

(2013). Perceived discrimination, ruminative subtypes, and risk for depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 19(4), 395–403. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0033504

56.

Morrison

Guerdan

Kanugo

Trull

T. J.

Shang

(2018) TigerAware: An innovative mobile survey and sensor data collection and analytics system [Conference session]. 2018 IEEE Third International Conference on Data Science in Cyberspace, Guangzhou, China.

57.

Morris-Prather

C. E.

Harrell

J. P.

Collins

Leonard

K. L.

Boss

Lee

J. W.

(1996). Gender differences in mood and cardiovascular responses to socially stressful stimuli. Ethnicity & Disease, 6(1-2), 123–131.

58.

Nakagawa

Johnson

P. C. D.

Schielzeth

(2017). The coefficient of determination R² and intra-class correlation coefficient from generalized linear mixed-effects models revisited and expanded. Journal of The Royal Society Interface, 14(134), 20170213. https://doi.org/10.1098/rsif.2017.0213

59.

Nardone

A. L.

Casey

J. A.

Rudolph

K. E.

Karasek

Mujahid

Morello-Frosch

(2020). Associations between historical redlining and birth outcomes from 2006 through 2015 in California. PLOS ONE, 15, e0237241. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0237241

60.

Odom

E. C.

Vernon-Feagans

(2010). Buffers of racial discrimination: Links with depression among rural African American mothers. Journal of Marriage and Family, 72(2), 346–359. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1741-3737.2010.00704.x

61.

Ong

A. D.

Burrow

A. L.

Fuller-Rowell

T. E.

N. M.

Sue

D. W.

(2013). Racial microaggressions and daily well-being among Asian Americans. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 60(2), 188–199. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0031736

62.

Ong

A. D.

Fuller-Rowell

Burrow

A. L.

(2009). Racial discrimination and the stress process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 96(6), 1259–1271. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015335

63.

Ortiz

S. M.

(2019). “You can say I got desensitized to it”: How Men of Color cope with everyday racism in online gaming. Sociological Perspectives, 62(4), 572–588. https://doi.org/10.1177/0731121419837588

64.

Ozier

E. M.

Taylor

V. J.

Murphy

M. C.

(2019). The cognitive effects of experiencing and observing subtle racial discrimination. Journal of Social Issues, 75(4), 1087–1115. https://doi.org/10.1111/josi.12349

65.

Paradies

(2006). A systematic review of empirical research on self-reported racism and health. International Journal of Epidemiology, 35(4), 888–901. https://doi.org/10.1093/ije/dyl056

66.

Pascoe

E. A.

Richman

L. S.

(2009). Perceived discrimination and health: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531–554. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0016059

67.

Pennebaker

J. W.

(1997). Writing about emotional experiences as a therapeutic process. Psychological Science, 8(3), 162–166. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9280.1997.tb00403.x

68.

Pennebaker

J. W.

Colder

Sharp

L. K.

(1990). Accelerating the coping process. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58(3), 528–537. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.58.3.528

69.

Pennebaker

J. W.

Seagal

J. D.

(1999). Forming a story: The health benefits of narrative. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 55, 1243–1254. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1097-4679(199910)55:10<1243::AID-JCLP6>3.0.CO;2-N

70.

Phinney

J. S.

(1992). The multigroup ethnic identity Measure: A new scale for use with diverse groups. Journal of Adolescent Research, 7(2), 156–176. https://doi.org/10.1177/074355489272003

71.

Pieterse

A. L.

Todd

N. R.

Neville

H. A.

Carter

R. T.

(2012). Perceived racism and mental health among Black American adults: A meta-analytic review. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 59(1), 1–9. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0026208

72.

Pittman

C. T.

(2011). Getting mad but ending up sad: The mental health consequences for African Americans using anger to cope with racism. Journal of Black Studies, 42(7), 1106–1124. https://doi.org/10.1177/0021934711401737

73.

Potter

L. N.

Brondolo

Smyth

J. M.

(2019). Biopsychosocial correlates of discrimination in daily life: A review. Stigma and Health, 4(1), 38–61. https://doi.org/10.1037/sah0000120

74.

Powell

L. R.

Jesdale

W. M.

Lemon

S. C.

(2016). On edge: The impact of race-related vigilance on obesity status in African–Americans. Obesity Science & Practice, 2(2), 136–143. https://doi.org/10.1002/osp4.42

75.

Rosenberg

(1965). Society and the adolescent self-image. Princeton University Press.

76.

Rutter

(2012). Resilience as a dynamic concept. Development and Psychopathology, 24(2), 335–344. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0954579412000028

77.

Schmitt

M. T.

Branscombe

N. R.

Postmes

Garcia

(2014). The consequences of perceived discrimination for psychological well-being: A meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 140(4), 921–948. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035754

78.

Seaton

E. K.

Caldwell

C. H.

Sellers

R. M.

Jackson

J. S.

(2010). An intersectional approach for understanding perceived discrimination and psychological well-being among African American and Caribbean Black youth. Developmental Psychology, 46(5), 1372–1379. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019869

79.

Seaton

E. K.

Douglass

(2014). School diversity and racial discrimination among African-American adolescents. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 20(2), 156–165. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0035322

80.

Seaton

E. K.

Zeiders

K. H.

(2020). Daily racial discrimination experiences, ethnic–racial identity, and diurnal cortisol patterns among Black adults. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 27(1), 145–155. https://doi.org/10.1037/cdp0000367

81.

Slopen

Lewis

T. T.

Williams

D. R.

(2016). Discrimination and sleep: A systematic review. Sleep Medicine, 18, 88–95. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sleep.2015.01.012

82.

Soto

J. A.

Dawson-Andoh

N. A.

BeLue

(2011). The relationship between perceived discrimination and generalized anxiety disorder among African Americans, Afro Caribbeans, and non-Hispanic Whites. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 25(2), 258–265. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2010.09.011

83.

Sue

D. W.

Capodilupo

C. M.

Torino

G. C.

Bucceri

J. M.

Holder

A. M. B.

Nadal

K. L.

Esquilin

(2007). Racial microaggressions in everyday life: Implications for clinical practice. American Psychologist, 62(4), 271–286. https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.62.4.271

84.

Swim

J. K.

Hyers

L. L.

Cohen

L. L.

Fitzgerald

D. C.

Bylsma

W. H.

(2003). African American college students’ experiences with everyday racism: Characteristics of and responses to these incidents. Journal of Black Psychology, 29(1), 38–67. https://doi.org/10.1177/0095798402239228

85.

Tao

K. W.

Owen

Drinane

J. M.

(2017). Was that racist? An experimental study of microaggression ambiguity and emotional reactions for racial–ethnic minority and White individuals. Race and Social Problems, 9(4), 262–271. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-017-9210-4

86.

Terrell

Miller

A. R.

Foster

Watkins

C. E.

(2006). Racial discrimination-induced anger and alcohol use among Black adolescents. Adolescence, 41(163), 485–492.

87.

Thomas

Hammond

W. P.

Kohn-Wood

L. P.

(2015). Chill, be cool man: African American men, identity, coping, and aggressive ideation. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 21(3), 369–379. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0037545

88.

Torres

Ong

A. D.

(2010). A daily diary investigation of Latino ethnic identity, discrimination, and depression. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology, 16(4), 561–568. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0020652

89.

Trull

T. J.

Ebner-Priemer

(2013). Ambulatory assessment. Annual Review of Clinical Psychology, 9, 151–176. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050212-185510

90.

Utsey

Giesbrecht

Hook

Stanard

(2008). Cultural, sociofamilial, and psychological resources that inhibit psychological distress in African Americans exposed to stressful life events and race/related stress. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 55(1), 49–62. https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0167.55.1.49

91.

Volpe

V. V.

Lee

D. B.

Hoggard

L. S.

Rahal

(2019). Racial discrimination and acute physiological responses among Black young adults: The role of racial identity. Journal of Adolescent Health, 64(2), 179–185. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.09.004

92.

Wallerstein

Duran

(2006). Using community-based participatory research to address health disparities. Health Promotion Practice, 7(3), 312–323. https://doi.org/10.1177/1524839906289376

93.

Wallerstein

Duran

(2010). Community-based participatory research contributions to intervention research: The intersection of science and practice to improve health equity. American Journal of Public Health, 100(Suppl 1), S40–S46. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.2009.184036

94.

Watson

Clark

L. A.

(1999). The PANAS-X: Manual for the positive and negative affect schedule, expanded form. University of Iowa Press.

95.

Watson-Singleton

N. N.

Hill

L. K.

Case

A. D.

(2019). Past discrimination, race-related vigilance, and depressive symptoms: The moderating role of mindfulness. Mindfulness, 10, 1768–1778. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12671-019-01143-5

96.

Williams

D. P.

Pandya

K. D.

Hill

L. K.

Kemp

A. H.

Way

B. M.

Thayer

J. F.

Koenig

(2019). Rumination moderates the association between resting high-frequency heart rate variability and perceived ethnic discrimination. Journal of Psychophysiology, 33(1), 13–21. https://doi.org/10.1027/0269-8803/a000201

97.

Williams

D. R.

Neighbors

H. W.

Jackson

J. S.

(2003). Racial/ethnic discrimination and health: Findings From community studies. American Journal of Public Health, 93, 200–208. https://doi.org/10.2105/AJPH.93.2.200

98.

Williams

D. R.

Jackson

J. S.

Anderson

N. B.

(1997). Racial differences in physical and mental health: Socio-economic status, stress and discrimination. Journal of Health Psychology, 2(3), 335–351. https://doi.org/10.1177/135910539700200305

99.

Williams

M. G.

Lewis

J. A.

(2019). Gendered racial microaggressions and depressive symptoms among Black women: A moderated mediation model. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 43(3), 368–380. https://doi.org/10.1177/0361684319832511

100.

Wong

Derthick

A. O.

David

E. J. R.

Saw

Okazaki

(2014). The what, the why, and the how: A review of racial microaggressions research in psychology. Race and Social Problems, 6, 181–200. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12552-013-9107-9

101.

Zeiders

K. H.

Hoyt

L. T.

Adam

E. K.

(2014). Associations between self-reported discrimination and diurnal cortisol rhythms among young adults: The moderating role of racial–ethnic minority status. Psychoneuroendocrinology, 50, 280–288. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psyneuen.2014.08.023

102.

Zeiders

K. H.

Landor

A. M.

Flores

Brown

(2018). Microaggressions and diurnal cortisol: Examining within-person associations among African-American and Latino young adults. Journal of Adolescent Health, 63(4), 482–488. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2018.04.018

Supplementary Material

Please find the following supplemental material available below.

For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.

For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.

0.00 MB

0.03 MB