The present research investigated social and biological intergroup hierarchy beliefs in the US and South Korea, representative Northern European-heritage and East Asian cultures, respectively. We hypothesized that individual-orientation (the emphasis on individuals and individual achievements) and group-orientation (the emphasis on groups and efficient functioning of groups) would predict social and biological hierarchy beliefs differently within and between these cultures. As expected, intergroup hierarchy beliefs were stronger in South Korea than in the US, particularly for biological hierarchy beliefs. Multigroup structural equation modeling analyses revealed that group-orientation predicted intergroup hierarchy beliefs across cultures, but more strongly in South Korea than in the US. Also, an emphasis on individual achievements predicted social hierarchy beliefs only in the US, whereas an emphasis on roles/positions within groups predicted social and biological hierarchy beliefs only in South Korea. Results implied that intergroup hierarchy beliefs may be generally associated with group-orientation and the value of competence or efficiency in each culture.
AltemeyerB. (1981). Right-wing authoritarianism. Manitoba, Canada: University of Manitoba Press.
2.
BastianB.HaslamN. (2006). Psychological essentialism and stereotype endorsement. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 42, 228–235. doi:10.1016/j.jesp.2005.03.003
3.
BentlerP. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107, 238–246. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
4.
BentlerP. M.WuE. J. C. (2002). EQS for Windows user’s guide. Encino, CA: Multivariate Software, Inc.
5.
BerryJ. W. (1994). Ecology of individualism and collectivism. In KimU.TriandisH. C.KâğitçibaşiC.ChoiS. C.YoonG. (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (pp. 77–84). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
6.
BreivikE.OlssonU. H. (2001). Adding variables to improve fit: The effect of model size on fit assessment in LISREL. In CudeckR.Du ToitS.SörbomD. (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: Present and future (pp. 169–194). Lincolnwood, IL: Scientific Software International.
7.
BrewerM. B. (2007). The importance of being we: Human nature and intergroup relations. American Psychologist, 62, 728–738. doi:10.1037/0003-066X.62.8.728
8.
BrewerM. B.GardnerW. (1996). Who is this “we”? Levels of collective identity and self representations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 71, 83–93. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.71.1.83
9.
BrownR. (2000). Social identity theory: Past achievements, current problems and future challenges. European Journal of Social Psychology, 30, 745–778. doi:10.1002/1099-0992(200011/12)30:6<745::aid-ejsp24>3.0.co;2-o
10.
BrowneM. W.CudeckR. (1993). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In BollenK. A.LongJ. S. (Eds.), Testing structural equation models (pp. 136–162). Newbury Park, CA: SAGE.
11.
BryantF. B.SatorraA. (2012). Principles and practice of scaled difference chi-square testing. Structural Equation Modeling, 19, 372–398. doi:10.1080/10705511.2012.687671
ByrneB. M. (1998). Structural equation modeling with LISREL, PRELIS, and SIMPLIS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
ByrneB. M.ShavelsonR. J.MuthénB. (1989). Testing for the equivalence of factor covariance and mean structures: The issue of partial measurement invariance. Psychological Bulletin, 105, 456–466. doi:10.1037//0033-2909.105.3.456
16.
ChaJ.-H. (1994). Aspects of individualism and collectivism in Korea. In KimU.TriandisH. C.KâğitçibaşiC.ChoiS.-C.YoonG. (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (pp. 157–174). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
17.
ChenF. F. (2007). Sensitivity of goodness of fit indices to lack of measurement invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 14, 464–504. doi:10.1080/10705510701301834
18.
ChenF. F. (2008). What happens if we compare chopsticks with forks? The impact of making inappropriate comparisons in cross-cultural research. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 95, 1005–1018. doi:10.1037/e514412014-064
19.
CheungG. W.RensvoldR. B. (2000). Assessing extreme and acquiescence response sets in cross-cultural research using structural equations modeling. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 3, 187–212. doi:10.1177/0022022100031002003
20.
ChoiI.NisbettR. (1998). Situational salience and cultural differences in the correspondence bias and actor–observer bias. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 9, 949–960. doi:10.1177/0146167298249003
21.
CohenD.Hoshino-BrowneE.LeungA. K.-y. (2007). Culture and the structure of personal experience: Insider and outsider phenomenologies of the self and social world. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, 39, 1–67. doi:10.1016/S0065-2601(06)39001-6
22.
CohenJ.CohenP. (1983). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
23.
CrandallC. C.MartinezR. (1996). Culture, ideology, and antifat attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 22, 1165–1176. doi:10.1177/01461672962211007
24.
CurranP. J.WestS. G.FinchJ. F. (1996). The robustness of test statistics to non-normality and specification error in confirmatory factor analysis. Psychological Methods, 1, 16–29. doi:10.1037/1082-989x.1.1.16
25.
DovidioJ. F. (2013). Bridging intragroup processes and intergroup relations: Needing the twain to meet. British Journal of Social Psychology, 52, 1–24. doi:10.1111/bjso.12026
26.
DovidioJ. F.GaertnerS. L. (2010). Intergroup bias. In FiskeS. T.GilbertD.LindzeyG. (Eds.), Handbook of social psychology (Vol. 2, pp. 1084–1121). New York, NY: Wiley.
27.
DovidioJ. F.HewstoneM.GlickP.EssesV. M. (2010). Prejudice, stereotyping, and discrimination: Theoretical and empirical overview. In DovidioJ. F.HewstoneM.GlickP.EssesV. M. (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination (pp. 3–28). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
28.
DuckittJ.SibleyC. G. (2017). The dual process motivational model of ideology and prejudice. In SibleyC. G.BarlowF. K. (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook of the psychology of prejudice (1st ed., pp. 188–221). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
29.
DunhamY.BaronA. S.BanajiM. R. (2006). From American city to Japanese village: A cross-cultural investigation of implicit race attitudes. Child Development, 77, 1268–1281. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2006.00933.x
30.
DuriezB.van HielA. (2002). The march of modern facism: A comparison of social dominance orientations and authoritarianism. Personality and Individual Differences, 32, 1199–1213. doi:10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00086-1
31.
FinneyS. J.DiStefanoC. (2006). Nonnormal and categorical data in structural equation modeling. In HancockG. R.MuellerR. O. (Eds.), Structural equation modeling: A second course (pp. 269–314). Greenwich, CT: Information Age.
32.
FiskeS. T. (1998). Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination. In GilbertD. T.FiskeS. T.LindzeyG. (Eds.), The handbook of social psychology (4th ed., Vol. 2, pp. 357–411). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
33.
GardnerW. L.SeeleyE. A. (2001). Confucius, “Jen,” and the benevolent use of power: The interdependent self as psychological contract preventing exploitation. In Lee-ChaiA. Y.BarghJ. A. (Eds.), The use and abuse of power (pp. 263–280). Philadelphia, PA: Psychology Press.
34.
GilbertD. T.MaloneP. S. (1995). The correspondence bias. Psychological Bulletin, 117, 21–38. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.117.1.21
35.
HaydukL. A.Pazderka-RobinsonH.CummingsG. C.LeversM. J. D.BeresM. A. (2005). Structural equation model testing and the quality of natural killer cell activity measurements. Medical Research Methodology, 5. Advance online publication. doi:10.1186/1471-2288-5-1
36.
HeJ.van de VijverF. (2012). Bias and equivalence in cross-cultural research. Online Readings in Psychology and Culture, 2. doi:10.9707/2307-0919.1111
37.
HoA. K.SidaniusJ.PrattoF.LevinS.ThomsenL.KteilyN.Sheehy-SkeffingtonJ. (2012). Social dominance orientation: Revisiting the structure and function of a variable predicting social and political attitudes. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 583–606. doi:10.1177/0146167211432765
38.
HofstedeG. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in work-related values. London, UK: SAGE.
39.
HorbergE. J.KrausM. W.KeltnerD. (2013). Pride displays communicate self-interest and support for meritocracy. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 105, 24–37. doi:10.1037/a0032849
40.
HornJ. L.McArdleJ. J. (1992). A practical and theoretical guide to measurement invariance in aging research. Experimental Aging Research, 18, 117–144. doi:10.1080/03610739208253916
41.
HuL.BentlerP. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118,
42.
JöreskogK. G. (1971). Simultaneous factor analysis in several populations. Psychometrika, 36, 409–426. doi:10.1007/BF02291366
JostJ. T.ThompsonE. P. (2000). Group-based dominance and opposition to equality as independent predictors of self-esteem, ethnocentrism, and social policy attitudes among African Americans and European Americans. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 36, 209–232. doi:10.1006/jesp.1999.1403
45.
KimU.TriandisH. C.KâğitçibaşiC.ChoiS.-C.YoonG. (Eds.). (1994). Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
46.
KlineR. B. (2011). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (3rd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
47.
KnowlesE. D.LoweryB. S. (2012). Meritocracy, self-concerns, and Whites’ denial of racial inequality. Self and Identity, 11, 202–222. doi:10.1080/15298868.2010.542015
48.
LeeI.-C.PrattoF.LiM.-C. (2007). Social relationships and sexism in the United States and Taiwan. Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, 38, 595–612. doi:10.1177/0022022107305241
49.
LernerM. J. (1980). The belief in a just world: A fundamental delusion. New York, NY: Springer.
50.
LevinS.SidaniusJ.RabinowitzJ. L.FedericoC. (1998). Ethnic identity, legitimizing ideologies and social status: A matter of ideological asymmetry. Political Psychology, 19, 373–404. doi:10.1111/0162-895X.00109
51.
LittleR. J. A. (1988). A test of missing completely at random for multivariate data with missing values. Journal of the American Statistical Association, 83, 1198–1202. doi:10.1080/01621459.1988.10478722
52.
LittleR. J. A.RubinD. B. (2002). Statistical analysis with missing data (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
53.
MardiaK. V. (1970). Measures of multivariate skewness and kurtosis with applications. Biometrika, 57, 519–530. doi:10.1093/biomet/57.3.519
54.
MarkusH. R.KitayamaS. (1991). Culture and the self: Implications for cognition, emotion, and motivation. Psychological Review, 98, 224–253. doi:10.1037/0033-295x.98.2.224
55.
MarkusH. R.MullallyP.KitayamaS. (1997). Selfways: Diversity in modes of cultural participation. In NeisserU.JoplingD. A. (Eds.), The conceptual self in context: Culture, experience, self-understanding (pp. 13–61). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
56.
MasudaT.NisbettR. E. (2001). Attending holistically versus analytically: Comparing the context sensitivity of Japanese and Americans. Journal of Personal Social Psychology, 81, 922–934. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.81.5.922
57.
MeadeA. W.LautenschlagerG. J. (2004). A Monte-Carlo study of confirmatory factor analytic tests of measurement equivalence/invariance. Structural Equation Modeling, 11, 60–72. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM1101_5
58.
MenonT.MorrisM. W.ChiuC.-Y.HongY. Y. (1999). Culture and construal of agency: Attribution to individual versus group dispositions. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 701–717. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.76.5.701
59.
MilfontT. L.FischerR. (2010). Testing measurement invariance across groups: Applications in cross-cultural research. International Journal of Psychological Research, 3, 111–121.
60.
MillsapR. E.KwokO.-M. (2004). Evaluating the impact of partial factorial invariance on selection of multiple populations. Psychological Methods, 9, 93–115. doi:10.1037/1082-989x.9.1.93
61.
MorrisM. W.PengK. (1994). Culture and cause: American and Chinese attributions for physical and social events. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 949–971. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.67.6.949
62.
NaoiA.SchoolerC. (1985). Occupational conditions and psychological functioning in Japan. American Journal of Sociology, 90, 729–752. doi:10.1086/228143
63.
NevittJ.HancockG. R. (2000). Improving the root mean square error of approximation for nonnormal conditions in structural equation modeling. Journal of Experimental Education, 68, 251–268. doi:10.1080/00220970009600095
64.
NisbettR. E. (2003). The geography of thought: How Asians and Westerners think differently and why. New York, NY: The Free Press.
65.
OlssonU. H.FossT.BreivikE. (2004). Two equivalent discrepancy functions for maximum likelihood estimation: Do their test statistics follow a non-central chi-square distribution under model misspecification?Sociological Methods and Research, 32, 453–500. doi:10.1177/0049124103258131
66.
OysermanD.CoonH. M.KemmelmeierM. (2002). Rethinking individualism and collectivism: Evaluation of theoretical assumption and meta-analyses. Psychological Bulletin, 128, 3–72. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.128.1.3
67.
PrattoF.SidaniusJ.StallworthL. M.MalleB. F. (1994). Social dominance orientation: A personality variable predicting social and political attitudes. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741–763. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741
68.
QuinnD. M.CrockerJ. (1999). When ideology hurts: Effects of belief in the Protestant ethic and feeling overweight on the psychological well-being of women. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 77, 402–414. doi:10.1037//0022-3514.77.2.402
69.
RangelU.KellerJ. (2011). Essentialism goes social: Beliefs in social determinism as a component of psychological essentialism. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 1056–1078. doi:10.1037/a0022401
70.
RokeachM. (1973). The nature of human values. New York, NY: Free Press.
71.
RossL. (1977). The intuitive psychologist and his shortcomings: Distortions in the attribution process. In BerkowitzL. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (Vol. 10, pp. 173–220). New York, NY: Academic Press.
72.
SatorraA.BentlerP. M. (1988). Scaling corrections for chi-square statistics in covariance structure analysis. Proceedings of the Business and Economic Statistics Section (pp. 308–313). Alexandria, VA: American Statistical Association.
73.
SatorraA.BentlerP. M. (1994). Corrections to test statistics and standard errors in covariance structure analysis. In von EyeA.CloggC. C. (Eds.), Latent variable analysis: Applications to developmental research (pp. 399–419). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
74.
SchwartzS. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values: Theory and empirical tests in 20 countries. In ZannaM. (Ed.), Advances in experimental social psychology (pp. 1–65). New York, NY: Academic Press.
75.
SchwartzS. H. (1994). Beyond individualism/collectivism: New cultural dimensions of values. In KimU.TriandisH. C.KâğitçibaşiC.ChoiS.-C.YoonG. (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (pp. 85–119). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
76.
ShinH. (2014). Cultural differences in prejudice between individual- and group-oriented cultures (Unpublished doctoral dissertation). University of Maryland, College Park, MD.
77.
ShinH.DovidioJ. F. (2016). Cultural differences in the role of economic competitiveness in prejudice toward immigrants and foreign workers. Analyses of Social Issues and Public Policy. Advance online publication. doi:10.1111/asap.12124
78.
ShinH.DovidioJ. F.NapierJ. L. (2013). Cultural differences in targets of stigmatization between individual- and group-oriented cultures. Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 35, 98–108. doi:10.1080/01973533.2012.746604
79.
SidaniusJ.PrattoF. (1999). Social dominance: An intergroup theory of social hierarchy and oppression. New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
80.
SloteW.De VosG. (1998). Confucianism and the family. Albany: State University of New York Press.
81.
SteigerJ. H. (1990). Structural model evaluation and modification: An interval estimation approach. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 25, 173–180. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr2502_4
82.
TajfelH.TurnerJ. C. (1979). An integrative theory of intergroup conflict. In AustinW. G.WorchelS. (Eds.), The social psychology of intergroup relations (pp. 33–48). Monterey, CA: Brooks/Cole.
83.
TriandisH. C. (1994). Theoretical and methodological approaches to the study of collectivism and individualism. In KimU.TriandisH. C.KâğitçibaşiC.ChoiS.-C.YoonG. (Eds.), Individualism and collectivism: Theory, method, and applications (pp. 85–119). Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
84.
TriandisH. C. (1995). Individualism and collectivism. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
85.
TurnerJ. C.HoggM. A.OakesP. J.ReicherS. D.WetherellM. S. (1987). Rediscovering the social group: A self-categorization theory. Oxford, UK: Basil Blackwell.
86.
Van de VijverF. J. R.LeungK. (1997). Methods and data analysis for cross-cultural research. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
87.
Van HielA.PandelaereM.DuriezB. (2004). The impact of need for closure on conservative beliefs and racism: Differential mediation by authoritarian submission and authoritarian dominance. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 824–837. doi:10.1177/0146167204264333
WilliamsM. J.EberhardtJ. L. (2008). Biological conceptions of race and the motivation to cross racial boundaries. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 94, 1033–1047. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.94.6.1033
90.
YzerbytV. Y.RocherS.SchadronG. (1997). Stereotypes as explanations: A subjective essentialistic view of group perception. In SpearsR.OakesP.EllemersN.HaslamA. (Eds.), The psychology of stereotyping and group life (pp. 20–50). London, UK: Basil Blackwell.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
