The birth of a child is a transitional situation that triggers stress in the family and each person has to use adjustment strategies allowing them to reposition gradually in relation to themselves and other members of the family, and to make space for the new arrival. When the child has a health problem, the stress on the parents is correspondingly greater. Research shows that fathers and mothers of a child with a health problem experience this ordeal differently. This article reports on the current state of knowledge about the experience of fathers and mothers of a child with a health problem, and suggests new directions for research to provide a fuller understanding of their experience.
Aldous, J., Mulligan, G.M. and Bjarnason, T. (1998) `Fathering over Time: What Makes the Difference? ', Journal of Marriage and the Family60(4): 809—20.
2.
Aradine, C.R. and Ferketish, S. (1990) `The Psychological Impact of Premature Birth on Mothers and Fathers', Journal of Reproductive and Infant Psychology8(2): 75—86.
3.
Bailey, D.B.J., Blasco, P.M. and Simeonsson, R.J. (1992) `Needs Expressed by Mothers and Fathers of Young Children with Disabilities', American Journal on Mental Retardation97(1): 1—10.
4.
Beckman, P.J. (1991) `Comparison of Mothers' and Fathers' Perceptions of the Effects of Young Children with and without Disabilities', American Journal of Mental Retardation95(5): 585—95.
5.
Benn, K.M. and McColl, M.A. (2004) `Parental Coping following Childhood Acquired Brain Injury', Brain Injury18(3): 239—55.
6.
Bennett, T., Deluca, D. and Allen, R. (1996) `Families of Children with Disabilities: Positive Adaptation Across the Life Cycle', Social Work in Education18(1): 31—44.
7.
Bird, C.E. (1999) `Gender, Household Labor and Psychological Distress: the Impact of the Amount and Division of Housework', Journal of Health and Social Behavior40 (1): 32-45.
8.
Bouchard, J.-M., Pelchat, D., Boudreault, P. and Gratton-Lalonde, M. (1994) Déficiences, incapacités et handicaps: processus d'adaptation et qualité de vie de la famille. Montréal: Éditions Guérin Universitaire.
9.
Brazil, K. and Krueger, P. (2002) `Patterns of Family Adaptation to Childhood Asthma ', Journal of Pediatric Nursing17(3): 167—73.
10.
Bristol, M.M., Galagher, J.J. and Schopler, E. (1988) `Mothers and Fathers of Young Developmentally Disabled and Non-disabled Boys: Adaptation and Spousal Support', Developmental Psychology24(3): 441—51.
11.
Brown, K.A.E. and Barbarin, O.A. (1996) `Gender Differences in Parenting a Child with Cancer' , Social Work in Health Care22(4): 53—71.
12.
Bruce, E.J., Schultz, C. and Smyrnios, K.X. (1996) `A Longitudinal Study of the Grief of Mothers and Fathers of Children with Intellectual Disability', British Journal of Medical Psychology69: 33—45.
13.
Chesler, M.A. and Parry, C. (2001) `Gender Roles and/or Styles in Crisis: an Integrative Analysis of the Experiences of Fathers of Children with Cancer', Qualitative Health Research11(3): 363—84.
14.
Cohen, M.H. (1995) `The Stages of the Prediagnosis Period in Chronic, Life-threatening Childhood Illness: a Process Analysis', Research in Nursing and Health18: 39—48.
15.
Cohen, M.S. (1999) `Families Coping with Childhood Chronic Illness: a Research Review', Families Systems andHealth17(2): 149—64.
16.
Crowe, T.K., Vanleit, B. and Berghmans, K.K. (2000) `Mothers' Perception of Child Care Assistance: the Impact of a Child's Disability', American Journal of Occupational Therapy54(1): 651—61.
17.
Darke, R. and Goldberg, S. (1994) `Father—Infant Interaction and Parent Stress with Healthy and Medically Compromised Infants', Infant Behavior and Development17: 3—14.
18.
Do Amarail, R.D.C.S. (2003) `How Do Children with Developmental Disabilities Impact Their Parental Satisfaction, Self-esteem, Symptoms of Stress, Ways of Coping, Marital Satisfaction and Family Support?', Dissertation Abstracts International. Section A: Humanities and Social Sciences64(4-A): 1183.
19.
Dodgson, J., Garwick, A., Blozis, S., Patterson, J., Bennett, F. and Blum, R. (2000) `Uncertainty in Childhood Chronic Conditions and Family Distress of Young Children', Journal of FamilyNursing6(3): 252—66.
20.
Doering, L., Dracup, K. and Moser, D. (1999) `Comparison of Psycho-social Adjustment of Mothers and Fathers of High-risk Infants in Neonatal Intensive Care Unit', Journal of Perinatology19(2): 132—7.
21.
Doucet, A. (2001) `You See the Need Perhaps More Clearly than I Have ', Journal of Family Issues22(3): 328—57.
22.
Dulac, G. (1993) La paternité: les transformations sociales récentes . Québec: Conseil de la Famille, Gouvernement du Québec.
23.
Dulac, G. (2000) `La Fragilité de la paternité dans la société Québécoise: les paradoxes du père nécessaire et du père abject', Défi Jeunesse6(3): 17—23.
24.
Dulac, G. (2001) `Les stéréotypes sociaux sur les rôles et l'implication des pères dans les services à la famille', Défi Jeunesse7(2): 26—32.
25.
Ellis, J.T., Luiselli, J.K., Aairault, D., Byrne, S., O'Malley-Cannon, B., Taras, M., Wolongevicz, J. and Sisson, R.W. (2002) `Families of Children with Developmental Disabilities: Assessment and Comparison of Self-reported Needs in Relation to Situational Variables', Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities14(2): 191—202.
26.
Finn, C.D. (1999) `The Cultural Context of Parenting an Infant with Developmental Disabilities: Irish Mothers' Perspectives', Dissertation Abstracts International. Section A: Humanities andSocial Sciences59(7-A): 2443.
27.
Foley, S.J. (1998) `The Incidence of Depression among Fathers of Developmentally Disabled Children', Dissertation Abstracts International. Section B: the Sciences and Engineering58(8-B): 4445.
28.
Ford-Gilboe, M. (2000) `Dispelling Myths and Creating Opportunity: a Comparison of the Strengths of Single-parent and Two-parent Families', Advances in NursingScience23(1): 41—58.
29.
Frey, K.S., Fewell, R.R. and Vadasy, P.F. (1989) `Parental Adjustment and Changes in Child Outcome among Families of Young Handicapped Children', Topics in Early Childhood Special Education8(4): 38—57.
30.
Goldbeck, L. (2001) `Parental Coping with the Diagnosis of Childhood Cancer: Gender Effects, Dissimilarity within Couples and Quality of Life', Psycho-oncology10(4): 325—35.
31.
Goldberg, S., Morris, P., Simmons, R.J., Fowler, R.S. and Levinson, H. (1990) `Chronic Illness in Infancy and Parenting Stress: a Comparison of Three Groups of Parents', Journal of Pediatric Psychology15(3): 347—58.
32.
Gray, D.E. (2003) `Gender and Coping: the Parents of Children with High Functioning Autism', Social Science and Medicine56(3): 631—42.
33.
Hadadian, A. (1994) `Stress and Social Support in Fathers and Mothers of Young Children with and without Disabilities', Early Education and Development5(3): 226—35.
34.
Harrison, M.J. and Magill-Evans, J. (1996) `Mother and Father Interactions over the First Year with Term and Preterm Infants', Research in Nursing and Health19(6): 451—9.
35.
Heaman, D.J. (1995) `Perceived Stressors and Coping Strategies of Parents Who Have Children with Developmental Disabilities: a Comparison of Mothers and Fathers', Journal of Pediatric Nursing10(5): 311—20.
36.
Heath, D.T. and Orthner, D.K. (1999) `Stress and Adaptation among Male and Female Single Parents', Journal of Family Issues20(4): 557—87.
37.
Hendricks, A.H.C., de Moor, J.M.H., Oud, J.H.L. and Franken, W.M. (2000) `Service Needs of Parents with Motor or Multiply Disabled Children in Dutch Therapeutic Toddler Class', Clinical Rehabilitation14(5): 506—17.
38.
Hentinen, M. and Kyngas, H. (1998) `Factors Associated with the Adaptation of Parents with a Chronically Ill Child', Journal of Clinical Nursing3(4): 70—81.
39.
Hornby, G. (1995) `Effects on Fathers of Children with Down Syndrome ', Journal of Child and Family Studies4(2): 239—55.
40.
Hughes, M.A. and McCollum, J. (1994) `Neonatal Intensive Care: Mothers' and Fathers' Perceptions of What Is Stressful', Journal of Early Intervention18(3): 258—68.
41.
Jackson, K., Ternestedt, B.M. and Schollin, J. (2003) `From Alienation to Familiarity: Experiences of Mothers and Fathers of Preterm Infants', Journal of Advanced Nursing43(2): 120—9.
42.
Jarvis, P. (1992) Paradoxes of Learning. on Becoming an Individual in SocietySan Francisco, CA: JosseyBass .
43.
Katz, S. (2002) `Gender Differences in Adapting to a Child's Chronic Illness: a Causal Model', Journal of Pediatric Nursing17(4): 257—69.
44.
Keller, D. and Honig, A.S. (2004) `Maternal and Paternal Stress in Families with School-aged Children with Disabilities', American Journal of Orthopsychiatry74(3): 337—48.
45.
King, G.A., King, S.M. and Rosenbaum, P.L. (1996) `How Mothers and Fathers View Professional Caregiving for Children with Disabilities', Developmental Medicine and Child Neurology38(5): 397—407.
46.
Krauss, M.W. (1993) `Child-related and Parenting Stress: Similarities and Differences between Mothers and Fathers of Children with Disabilities ', American Journal of Mental Retardation97(4): 393—404.
47.
Lahner, J.M. and Hayslip, B.H. (2003) `Gender Differences in Parental Reactions to the Birth of a Premature Low Birth Weight Infant', Journal of Prenatal and PerinatalPsychology and Health18(1): 71—88.
48.
Lazarus, R.S. and Folkman, S. (1984) Stress, Appraisal and Coping. New York: Springer.
49.
Lemanek, K.L., Jones, M.L. and Lieberman, B. (2000) `Mothers of Children with Spina Bifida: Adaptational and Stress Processing', Children's Health Care29(1): 19—35.
50.
Lengua, L.J. and Stormshak, E.A. (2000) `Gender, Gender Roles and Personality: Gender Differences in the Prediction of Coping and Psychological Symptoms', Sex Roles43(11—12): 787—820.
51.
Lohr, T., von Gontard, A. and Roth, B. (2000) `Perception of Premature Birth by Fathers and Mothers ', Archives of Women's Mental Health3(2): 41—6.
52.
Lussier, N. (1998) `Incertitude et stratégies adaptatives de la famille d'un enfant ayant une malformation cardiaque congénitale', unpublished master's thesis, Faculty of Nursing, Université de Montréal.
53.
McGrath, P. and Chesler, M.A. (2004) `Fathers' Perspective on the Treatment for Pediatric Hematology: Extending the Findings', Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing27(1): 39—61.
54.
McLinden, S.E. (1990) `Mothers' and Fathers' Reports of the Effects of a Young Child with Special Needs on the Family', Journal of Early Intervention14(3): 249—59.
55.
Munoz, J.P., Karmosky, A., Gaugler, J., Lang, K. and Stayduhar, M. (1999) `Perceived Role Changes in Parents of Children with Cerebral Palsy', Mental Health22(4): 1—3.
56.
Nicholls, A. and Kirkland, J. (1996) `Maternal Sensitivity: a Review of Attachment Literature Definitions', Early Child Development and Care120: 55—65.
57.
O'Brien, M.E. (2001) `Living in a House of Cards: Family Experiences with Long-term Childhood Technology Dependence', Journal of Pediatric Nursing16(1): 13—22.
58.
Olsson, M.B. and Hwang, C.P. (2001) `Depression and Mothers and Fathers of Children with Intellectual Disability', Journal of Intellectual Disability Research45(6): 535—43.
59.
Pelchat, D. (1989) `Programme d'intervention précoce auprès des parents d'un enfant atteint d'un déficience physique', unpublished PhD thesis, University of Montreal, URL (consulted 15 April 2006): http://www.scinf.umontreal.ca/famille/
60.
Pelchat, D. (1994) `L'annonce de la déficience et processus d'adaptation de la famille. handicap, médecine, éthique', Les cahiers de l'Afrée6: 81—8.
61.
Pelchat, D. (1995) `La famille et la naissance d'un enfant ayant une déficience physique', in F. Duhamel (ed.) La santé et la famille: approche systémique en soins infirmiers , pp. 103—25. Montreal: Gaëtan Morin.
62.
Pelchat, D. and Lefebvre, H. (2004) `A Holistic Intervention Program for Families with a Child with a Disability', Journal of Advanced Nursing48(2): 1—8.
63.
Pelchat, D. and Lefebvre, H. (2005) Apprendre ensemble. Le PRIFAM, programme d'intervention interdisciplinaire et familiale. Montreal: Chenelière/McGraw-Hill.
64.
Pelchat, D., Bisson, J., Ricard, N., Perreault, M. and Bouchard, J.M. (1999a) `The Longitudinal Effects of an Early Family Intervention Program on the Adaptation of Families of Children with a Disability', International Journal of Nursing Studies36(6): 465—77.
65.
Pelchat, D., Ricard, N., Bouchard, J.M., Perreault, M., Saucier, J.F., Berthiaume, M. and Bisson, J. (1999b) `Adaptation of Parents in Relation to Their 6-month-old Infant's Type of Disability', Child: Care, Health and Development25(4): 377—97.
66.
Pelchat, D., Lefebvre, H. and Bouchard, J.M. (2001) `L'annonce d'une déficience motrice cérébrale: une relation de confiance à construire entre les parents, le personnel paramédical et les médecins', Paediatrics andChild Health6(6): 365—74.
67.
Pelchat, D., Lefebvre, H. and Damiani, C. (2002a) `Deuil — appropriation de compétences — transformation', Pratiques Psychologiques1: 41—52.
68.
Pelchat, D., Lefebvre, H., Proulx, M. and Reidy, M. (2002b) `Satisfaction de parents à la naissance d'un enfant ayant un déficience lors d'une intervention familiale', Recherche en soins infirmiers69: 65—79.
69.
Pelchat, D., Lefebvre, H. and Perreault, M. (2003a) `Differences and Similarities between Mothers' and Fathers' Experiences of Parenting a Child with a Disability', Journal of Child Health Care7(4): 231—47.
70.
Pelchat, D., Bisson, J., Bois, C. and Saucier, J.F. (2003b) `The Effects of Early Relational Antecedents and Other Factors on Parental Sensitivity of Mothers and Fathers', Infant and Child Development12(1): 27—51.
71.
Pelchat, D., Lefebvre, H., Proulx, M., Bouchard, J.M., Perreault, M. and Bouchard, L. (2004a) `Acquisition de savoirs professionnels et de savoirs parentaux dans le cadre du programme d'intervention PRIFAM', Revue internationale de l'éducation familiale8(2): 53—72.
72.
Pelchat, D., Lefebvre, H., Proulx, M. and Reidy, M. (2004b) `Parental Satisfaction with an Early Family Intervention Program', Journal of Perinatal andNeonatal Nursing18(2): 128—44.
73.
Pirès, A. (1997) `De quelques enjeux épistémologiques d'une méthodologie générale pour les sciences sociales', in J. Poupart, J.P. Deslauriers, L.H. Groulx, A. Lapperrière and R. Mayer (eds) La recherche qualitative. enjeux épistémologiques et méthodologiques, pp. 3—82. Boucherville: Gaëtan Morin.
74.
Poupart, J. (1997) `L'entretien qualitatif: considérations épistémologiques, théoriques et méthodologiques', in J. Poupart , J.P. Deslauriers, L.H. Groulx, A. Lapperrière and R. Mayer (eds) La recherche qualitative. enjeux épistémologiques et méthodologiques, pp. 173—210. Boucherville: Gaëtan Morin.
75.
Rautava, P., Lehtonen, L., Helenius, H. and Sillanpaa, M. (2003) `Effect of Newborn Hospitalization on Family and Child Behavior: a 12-year Follow-up Study', Pediatrics111(2): 277—83.
76.
Roach, M.A., Orsmond, G.I. and Barratt, M.S. (1999) `Mothers and Fathers of Children with Down Syndrome: Parental Stress and Involvement in Childcare', American Journal of Mental Retardation104(5): 422—36.
77.
Schumacker, K.L. and Meleis, A.I. (1995) `Transitions: a Central Concept in Nursing', IMAGE : Journal of Nursing Scholarship26(2): 72—80.
78.
Scorgie, K. and Sobsey, D. (2000) `Transformational Outcomes Associated with Parenting Children Who Have Disabilities', Mental Retardation38(3): 195—206.
79.
Simmerman, S., Blacher, J. and Baker, B.L. (2001) `Fathers' and Mothers' Perceptions of Father Involvement in Families with Young Children with a Disability', Journal of Intellectual and Developmental Disability26(4): 325—38.
80.
Singer, L.T., Salvator, A., Shenyang, G., Lilien, L. and Baley, J. (1999) `Maternal Psychological Distress and Parenting Stress After the Birth of a Very-low-weight Infant', Journal of theAmerican Medical Association281(9): 799—805.
81.
Skari, H., Skreden, M., Malt, U.F., Dalholt, M., Ostensen, A.B., Egeland, T. and Emblem, R. (2002) `Comparative Levels of Psychological Distress, Stress Symptoms, Depression and Anxiety After Childbirth. A Prospective Population-based Study of Mothers and Fathers', International Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology109(10): 1154—63.
82.
Smyth, R.L. (2002) `Systematic Reviews: What Are They and How Can They Be Used?', in J.V. Craig and R.L. Smyth (eds) Evidence-based Practice for Nurses, pp. 164—83. London: Churchill-Livingstone .
83.
Starke, M. and Moller, A. (2002) `Parents' Need for Knowledge Concerning the Medical Diagnosis of Their Children', Journal of Child Health Care6(4): 245—57.
84.
Stewart, J.L. and Mishel, M.H. (2000) `Uncertainty in Childhood Illness: a Synthesis of the Parent and Child Literatures', Scholarly Inquiry for Nursing Practice14(4): 299—319.
85.
Sullivan, A. (2002) `Gender Differences in Coping Strategies of Parents of Children with Down Syndrome', Down Syndrome: Research and Practice8(2): 67—73.
86.
Tamres, L.K.Janicki, D. and Helgeson, V.S. (2002) `Sex Differences in Coping Behavior: a Meta-analytic Review and an Examination of Relative Coping', Personality and Social Psychology Review6(1): 2—30.
87.
Taanila, A., Syrjaelae, L., Kokkonen, J., Jaervelin, M.R. (2002) `Coping of Parents with Physically and/or Intellectually Disabled Children', Child: Care, Health & Development28(1): 73—86.
88.
Tannen, D. (1990) You Just Don't Understand: Women and Men in Conversation . New York: Morrow.
89.
Thyen, U., Sperner, J., Morfeld, M., Meyer, C. and Ravens-Sieberer, U. (2003) `Unmet Care Needs and Impact on Families with Children with Disabilities in Germany', Ambulatory Pediatrics3(2): 74—81.
90.
Timko, C., Stovel, K.V. and Moos, R.H. (1992) `Functioning among Mothers and Fathers of Juvenile Rheumatic Disease: a Longitudinal Study', Journal of Pediatric Psychology17(6): 705—24.
91.
Tommiska, V., Ostberg, M. and Fellman, V. (2002) `Parental Stress in Families of 2-year-old Extremely Low Birthweight Infants', Archives of Disease in Childhood: Fetal and Neonatal Edition86(3): F161—4.
92.
Traustadottir, R. (1991) `Mothers Who Care: Gender Disability and Family Life', Journal of Family Issues12(2): 211—28.
93.
Trute, B. (1995) `Gender Differences in the Psychological Adjustment of Parents of Young, Developmentally Disabled Children', Journal of Child Psychology, Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines36(7): 1225—42.
94.
Van Duüren, F. (1998) `Situations d'échec: un champ négligé en psychologie sociale expérimentale?', Revue intenationale de psychologie sociale1: 45—68.
95.
Wanamaker, C.E. and Glenwick, D.S. (1998) `Stress, Coping and Perceptions of Child Behavior in Parents of Preschoolers with Cerebral Palsy', Rehabilitation Psychology43(4): 297—312.
96.
Yeh, C.H. (2002) `Gender Differences of Parental Distress in Children with Cancer', Journal of Advanced Nursing38(6): 598—606.
97.
Yeh, C.H. (2004) `Gender Differences in the Use of Coping Strategies Among Taiwanese Parents Whose Children Have Cancer', Cancer Nursing27(2): 100—7.
