The population of sub-Saharan children and adolescents is substantial and growing. Even though most of this population is vulnerable, there is no comprehensive understanding of the social-ecological factors that could be leveraged by mental health practitioners to support their resilience. The present study undertakes a narrative scoping review of empirical research (quantitative, qualitative, and mixed) on the resilience of children and adolescents living in sub-Saharan Africa to determine what enables their resilience and what may be distinctive about African pathways of child and adolescent resilience. Online databases were used to identify full-text, peer-reviewed papers published 2000–2018, from which we selected 59 publications detailing the resilience of children and/or adolescents living in 18 sub-Saharan countries. Studies show that the resilience of sub-Saharan children and adolescents is a complex, social-ecological process supported by relational, personal, structural, cultural, and/or spiritual resilience-enablers, as well as disregard for values or practices that could constrain resilience. The results support two insights that have implications for how mental health practitioners facilitate the resilience of sub-Saharan children and adolescents: (i) relational and personal supports matter more-or-less equally; and (ii) the capacity for positive adjustment is complexly interwoven with African ways-of-being and -doing.
AdegokeC. O.SteynM. G. (2017).
A photo voice perspective on factors contributing to the resilience of HIV positive Yoruba adolescent girls in Nigeria. Journal of Adolescence,
56, 1–10. doi:10.1016/j.adolescence.2017.01.003
2.
AhorluC. K.PfeifferC.ObristB. (2015).
Socio-cultural and economic factors influencing adolescents’ resilience against the threat of teenage pregnancy: A cross-sectional survey in Accra, Ghana. Reproductive Health,
12, 1–11. doi:10.1186/s12978-015-0113-9
3.
AihiokhaiS. A. (2017).
An African ethic of hospitality for the global church: A response to the culture of exploitation and violence in Africa. Filosofia Theoretica: Journal of African Philosophy, Culture and Religions,
6(2), 20–41.
4.
AkelloG.ReisR.RichtersA. (2010).
Silencing distressed children in the context of war in northern Uganda: An analysis of its dynamics and its health consequences. Social Science & Medicine,
71(2), 213–220. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2010.03.030
5.
ArkseyH.O’MalleyL. (2005).
Scoping studies: Towards a methodological framework. International Journal of Social Research Methodology,
8(1), 19–32.
6.
ArreyA. E.BilsenJ.LacorP.DeschepperR. (2016).
Spirituality/religiosity: A cultural and psychological resource among Sub-Saharan African migrant women with HIV/AIDS in Belgium. PLoS One,
11(7), e0159488. https://doi-org.uplib.idm.oclc.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0159488
7.
AtilolaO. (2014).
Child mental-health policy development in sub-Saharan Africa: Broadening the perspectives using Bronfenbrenner’s ecological model. Health Promotion International,
32(2), 380–391.
8.
BarringtonC.Villa-TorresL.AbdoulayiS.TsokaM. G.MvulaP. M. (2017).
Using photo-elicitation methods to understand resilience among ultra-poor youth and their caregivers in Malawi. Health Education & Behavior,
44(5), 758–768.
9.
BaxenJ.HaipingeE. (2015).
School experiences of HIV-positive secondary school learners on ARV treatment in Namibia. International Journal of Educational Development,
41, 237–244. doi:10.1016/j.ijedudev.2014.11.002
10.
BehrensK. (2010).
Exploring African holism with respect to the environment. Environmental Values,
19(4), 465–484.
11.
BerckmoesL. H.de JongJ. T. V. M.ReisR. (2017).
Intergenerational transmission of violence and resilience in conflict-affected Burundi: A qualitative study of why some children thrive despite duress. Global Mental Health,
4. doi:10.1017/gmh.2017.23
12.
BergerR.BenatovJ.CuadrosR.VanNattanJ.GelkopfM. (2018).
Enhancing resiliency and promoting prosocial behavior among Tanzanian primary-school students: A school-based intervention. Transcultural Psychiatry,
55(6), 821–845. https://doi.org/10.1177/1363461518793749
13.
BetancourtT. S.McBainR.NewnhamE. A.BrennanR. T. (2013).
Trajectories of internalizing problems in war-affected Sierra Leonean youth: Examining conflict and postconflict factors. Child Development,
84(2), 455–470. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8624.2012.01861.x
14.
BetancourtT. S.Meyers-OkhiS. E.CharrowA.HansenN. (2013).
Annual research review: Mental health and resilience in HIV/AIDS-affected children – a review of the literature and recommendation for future research. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
54(4), 423–444. doi: 10.1111/j.1469-7610.2012.02613
15.
BetancourtT. S.Meyers-OhkiS.StulacS. N.Elizabeth BarreraA.MushashiC.BeardsleeW. R. (2011).
Nothing can defeat combined hands (abashize hamwe ntakibananira): Protective processes and resilience in Rwandan children and families affected by HIV/AIDS. Social Science & Medicine,
73(5), 693–701. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2011.06.053
16.
BettsS. C.PetersonD. J.HuebnerA. J. (2003).
Zimbabwean adolescents’ condom use: What makes a difference? Implications for intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health,
33(3), 165–171.
17.
BlockE. (2016).
Reconsidering the orphan problem: The emergence of male caregivers in Lesotho. AIDS Care,
28(Suppl. 4), 30–40.
18.
BlockE. (2018).
Living, dying, after death: Achieving a “good” death in the time of AIDS orphan care. Death Studies,
42(5), 275–281.
19.
BloomD.CanningD.SevillaJ. (2003). The demographic dividend: A new perspective on the economic consequences of population change. Rand Corporation.
20.
BoothbyN.CrawfordJ.HalperinJ. (2006).
Mozambique child soldier life outcome study: Lessons learned in rehabilitation and reintegration efforts. Global Public Health,
1(1), 87–107.
21.
BoothbyN.MugumyaF.RitterbuschA. E.WanicanJ.BangiranaC. A.PizatellaA. D., … MeyerS. (2017).
Ugandan households: A study of parenting practices in three districts. Child Abuse & Neglect,
67, 157–173. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.02.010
22.
BrittianA. S.LewinN.NorrisS. A. (2013).
“You must know where you come from”: South African youths’ perceptions of religion in time of social change. Journal of Adolescent Research,
28(6), 642–663.
23.
BronfenbrennerU. (1979). The ecology of human development: Experiments by nature and design.
Cambridge, MA:
Harvard University Press.
24.
BujoB. (2009). Is there a specific African ethic? Towards a discussion with Western thought. In MuroveM. F. (Ed.), African ethics: An anthology of comparative and applied ethics (pp. 113–128).
Scottsville, South Africa:
University of KwaZulu-Natal Press.
25.
CamfieldL. (2012).
Resilience and well-being among urban Ethiopian children: What role do social resources and competencies play?Social Indicators Research,
107(3), 393–410. doi:10.1007/s11205-011-9860-3
26.
ChisholmD.SweenyK.SheehanP.RasmussenB.SmitF.CuijpersP.SaxenaS. (2016).
Scaling-up treatment of depression and anxiety: A global return on investment analysis. The Lancet Psychiatry,
3(5), 415–424.
27.
ColquhounH. L.LevacD.O’BrienK. K.StrausS.TriccoA. C.PerrierL., … & MoherD. (2014).
Scoping reviews: Time for clarity in definition, methods, and reporting. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology,
67(12), 1291–1294.
28.
CreswellJ. W. (2014). Educational research: Planning, conducting and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (4th ed.).
London, UK:
Pearson Education.
29.
DakinE. M.Noyes ParkerS.AmellJ. W.RogersB. S. (2014).
Seeing with our own eyes: Youth in Mathare, Kenya use photovoice to examine individual and community strengths. Qualitative Social Work,
14(2), 170–192. doi: 10.1177/1473325014526085
30.
DanielM. (2005).
Beyond liminality: Orphanhood and marginalisation in Botswana. African Journal of AIDS Research,
4(3), 195–204. doi:10.2989/16085900509490358
31.
DanielM.ApilaH. M.BjørgoR.LieG. T. (2007).
Breaching cultural silence: Enhancing resilience among Ugandan orphans. African Journal of AIDS Research,
6(2), 109–120.
32.
DimbueneZ. T.DefoB. K. (2011).
Risky sexual behaviour among unmarried young people in Cameroon: Another look at family environment. Journal of Biosocial Science,
43(2), 129–153. doi:10.1017/S0021932010000635
33.
DushimirimanaF.SeziberaV.AuerbachC. (2014).
Pathways to resilience in post genocide Rwanda: A resources efficacy model. Intervention,
12(2), 219–230.
34.
EbersöhnL.LootsT.MampaneR.OmidireF.Malan‐Van RooyenM.SefothoM.NthonthoM. (2018).
An indigenous psychology perspective on psychosocial support in Southern Africa as collective, networking, and pragmatic support. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology,
28(5), 332–347.
35.
Eggum-WilkensN.ZhangL.FaragoF. (2017).
Karamojong adolescents in Tororo, Uganda: Life events, adjustment problems, and protective factors. Journal of Loss & Trauma,
22(4), 283–296. doi:10.1080/15325024.2017.1284508
36.
EvansR. M. C. (2005).
Social networks, migration, and care in Tanzania. Journal of Children & Poverty,
11(2), 111–129. doi:10.1080/10796120500195527
37.
EvansR. (2012).
Safeguarding inheritance and enhancing the resilience of orphaned young people living in child- and youth-headed households in Tanzania and Uganda. African Journal of AIDS Research,
11(3), 177–189. doi:10.2989/16085906.2012.734977
38.
EvansR. (2015).
HIV-related stigma, asset inheritance and chronic poverty: Vulnerability and resilience of widows and caregiving children and youth in Tanzania and Uganda. Progress in Development Studies,
15(4), 326–342. doi:10.1177/1464993415592740
39.
EzeC. (2014).
Rethinking African culture and identity: The Afropolitan model. Journal of African Cultural Studies,
26(2), 234–247.
40.
FjermestadK. W.KvestadI.DanielM.LieG. T. (2008).
“It can save you if you just forget”: Closeness and competence as conditions for coping among Ugandan orphans. Journal of Psychology in Africa,
18(3), 445–456. doi: 10.1080/14330237.2008.10820221
41.
FogartyA.WoodC. E.GialloR.KaufmanJ.HansenM. (2019).
Factors promoting emotional‐behavioural resilience and adjustment in children exposed to intimate partner violence: A systematic review. Australian Journal of Psychology,
71(4), 375–389 . doi: 10.1111/ajpy.12242.
42.
FoleyE. A. (2018, August 9). The interplay of law and culture in child protection. Keynote presentation at the International Child Protection Conference, Nairobi, Kenya.
43.
FotsoJ. C.HoldingP. A.EzehA. C. (2009).
Factors conveying resilience in the context of urban poverty: The case of orphans and vulnerable children in the informal settlements of Nairobi, Kenya. Child & Adolescent Mental Health,
14(4), 175–182. doi:10.1111/j.1475-3588.2009.00534.x
44.
FournierB.BridgeA.Pritchard KennedyA.AlibhaiA.Konde-LuleJ. (2014).
Hear our voices: A photovoice project with children who are orphaned and living with HIV in a Ugandan group home. Children & Youth Services Review,
45, 55–63. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.038
45.
GartlandD.RiggsE.MuyeenS.GialloR.AfifiT. O.MacMillanH., … & BrownS. J. (2019).
What factors are associated with resilient outcomes in children exposed to social adversity? A systematic review. BMJ Open,
9(4), e024870.
46.
GloverS.HendronJ.TaylorB.LongM. (2018).
Understanding carer resilience in Duchenne muscular dystrophy: A systematic narrative review. Chronic Illness, 16(2), 87–103. doi:10.1177/1742395318789472.
47.
GunnestadA.ThwalaS. (2011).
Resilience and religion in children and youth in Southern Africa. International Journal of Children’s Spirituality,
16(2), 169–185. doi:10.1080/1364436X.2011.580726
48.
GustavssonM.OruutJ.RubensonB. (2017).
Girl soldiers with Lord’s Resistance Army in Uganda fighting for survival: Experiences of young women abducted by LRA. Children’s Geographies,
15(6), 690–702. doi:10.1080/14733285.2017.1300233
49.
GutiérrezM.RomeroI. (2014).
Resilience, subjective well-being and adolescents' attitudes towards drug use in Angola. Anales de psicología,
30(2), 608–619.
50.
GyanS. E. (2017).
Adolescent girls’ resilience to teenage pregnancy and motherhood in Begoro, Ghana: The effect of financial support. Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies,
12(2), 130–137. doi:10.1080/17450128.2017.1290305
51.
GyanS. E.AhorluC.DzorgboD. S.FayorseyC. K. (2017).
Social capital and adolescent girls’ resilience to teenage pregnancy in Begoro, Ghana. Journal of Biosocial Science,
49(3), 334–347. doi:10.1017/S002193201600047X
52.
HaffejeeS.TheronL. C. (2017).
Resilience processes in sexually abused adolescent girls: A scoping review of the literature. South African Journal of Science,
113(9–10), 1–9. http://dx.doi.org/10.17159/sajs.2017/20160318
53.
HallB. J.TolW. A.JordansM. J. D.BassJ.de JongJ. T. V. M. (2014).
Understanding resilience in armed conflict: Social resources and mental health of children in Burundi. Social Science & Medicine,
114, 121–128.
54.
HarmsS.KizzaR.SebunnyaJ.JackS. (2009).
Conceptions of mental health among Ugandan youth orphaned by AIDS. African Journal of AIDS Research,
8(1), 7–16.
55.
HarnischH.MontgomeryE. (2017).
“What kept me going”: A qualitative study of avoidant responses to war-related adversity and perpetration of violence by former forcibly recruited children and youth in the Acholi region of northern Uganda. Social Science & Medicine,
188, 100–108. doi:10.1016/j.socscimed.2017.07.007
56.
HarozE. E.MurrayL. K.BoltonP.BetancourtT.BassJ. K. (2013).
Adolescent resilience in northern Uganda: The role of social support and prosocial behavior in reducing mental health problems. Journal of Research on Adolescence,
23(1), 138–148. doi:10.1111/j.1532-7795.2012.00802.x
57.
HarperG. W.RiplingerA. J.NeubauerL. C.MurphyA. G.VelcoffJ.BangiA. K. (2014).
Ecological factors influencing HIV sexual risk and resilience among young people in rural Kenya: Implications for prevention. Health Education Research,
29(1), 131–146. doi:10.1093/her/cyt081
58.
HarperG. W.WadeR. M.OnyangoD. P.AbuorP. A.BauermeisterJ. A.OderoW. W.BaileyR. C. (2015).
Resilience among gay/bisexual young men in western Kenya: Psychosocial and sexual health outcomes. AIDS,
29(Suppl. 3), S261–S269.
59.
HartA.GagnonE.Eryigit-MadzwamuseS.CameronJ.ArandaK.RathboneA.HeaverB. (2016).
Uniting resilience research and practice with an inequalities approach. SAGE Open,
6(4), 1–13.
60.
HenleyR.McAlpineK.MuellerM.VetterS. (2010).
Does school attendance reduce the risk of youth homelessness in Tanzania?International Journal of Mental Health Systems,
4, 28. doi:10.1186/1752-4458-4-28
61.
HunterA. J. (2001).
A cross-cultural comparison of resilience in adolescents. Journal of Pediatric Nursing,
16(3), 172–179.
62.
HutchinsonA. J. (2014).
Surviving, coping or thriving? Understanding coping and its impact on social well-being in Mozambique. British Journal of Social Work,
44(4), 972–991. doi:10.1093/bjsw/bcs167
63.
JefferisT.TheronL. C. (2018).
Explanations of resilience in women and girls: How applicable to black South African girls. Women’s Studies International Forum,
69, 195–211.
64.
JithooV.BakkerT. (2011). Family therapy within the African Context. In MpofuE. (Ed.), Counseling people of African ancestry (pp. 142–154).
New York, NY:
Cambridge.
65.
JordansM. J.TolW. A.KomproeI. H.De JongJ. V. (2009).
Systematic review of evidence and treatment approaches: Psychosocial and mental health care for children in war. Child and Adolescent Mental Health,
14(1), 2–14.
66.
KabiruC. W.BeguyD.NdugwaR. T.ZuluE. M.JessorR. (2012). “
Making it”: Understanding adolescent resilience in two informal settlements (slums) in Nairobi, Kenya. Child & Youth Services,
33(1), 12–32. doi:10.1080/0145935X.2012.665321
67.
KaplanS. (2013).
Child survivors of the 1994 Rwandan genocide and trauma-related affect. Journal of Social Issues,
69(1), 92–110. doi:10.1111/josi.12005
68.
KastnerM.TriccoA. C.SoobiahC.LillieE.PerrierL.HorsleyT., … & StrausS. E. (2012).
What is the most appropriate knowledge synthesis method to conduct a review? Protocol for a scoping review. BMC Medical Research Methodology,
12(1), 114. Retrieved from https://bmcmedresmethodol.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/1471-2288-12-114
69.
KimA., W.KaiserB.BosireE.ShahbazianK.MendenhallE. (2019).
Idioms of resilience among cancer patients in urban South Africa: An anthropological heuristic for the study of culture and resilience. Transcultural Psychiatry, 56(4), 720–747. doi:10.1177/1363461519858798
70.
KnizekB. L.MugishaJ.OsafoJ.KinyandaE. (2017).
Growing up HIV-positive in Uganda: “Psychological immunodeficiency”? A qualitative study. BMC Psychology,
5(1), 30–30. doi:10.1186/s40359-017-0199-7
71.
KuoC.LoVetteA.SteinD. J.CluverL. D.BrownL. K.AtujunaM., … & BeardsleeW. (2019).
Building resilient families: Developing family interventions for preventing adolescent depression and HIV in low resource settings. Transcultural Psychiatry,
56(1), 187–212.
72.
Lang-BaldéR.AmersonR. (2018).
Culture and birth outcomes in Sub-Saharan Africa: A review of literature. Journal of Transcultural Nursing,
29(5), 465–472.
73.
LeeL. M. (2012).
Youths navigating social networks and social support systems in settings of chronic crisis: The case of youth-headed households in Rwanda. African Journal of AIDS Research,
11(3), 165–175.
74.
LeveyE. J.OppenheimC. E.LangeB. C. L.PlaskyN. S.HarrisB. L.Gondah LekpehG., … BorbaC. P. C. (2016).
A qualitative analysis of factors impacting resilience among youth in post-conflict Liberia. Child & Adolescent Psychiatry & Mental Health,
10, 1–11.
75.
LotheE. A.HeggenK. (2003).
A study of resilience in young Ethiopian famine survivors. Journal of Transcultural Nursing,
14(4), 313–320.
76.
LutharS. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In CicchettiD.CohenD. (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Risk, disorder, and adaptation (2nd ed., Vol.
3., pp. 739–795).00Hoboken, NJ:
John Wiley & Sons.
77.
MacedoA.SherrL.TomlinsonM.SkeenS.RobertsK. (2018).
Parental bereavement in young children living in South Africa and Malawi: Understanding mental health resilience. Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes,
78(4), 390–398. doi:10.1097/QAI.0000000000001704
78.
MastenA. S. (2001).
Ordinary magic: Resilience processes in development. American Psychologist,
56(3), 227–238.
79.
MastenA. S. (2014a). Ordinary magic: Resilience in development.
New York, NY:
Guilford Press.
80.
MastenA. S. (2014b).
Global perspectives on resilience in children and youth. Child Development,
85(1), 6–20.
81.
MastenA. S. (2018).
Resilience theory and research on children and families: Past, present, and promise. Journal of Family Theory & Review,
10(1), 12–31.
82.
MastenA. S. (2019).
Resilience from a developmental systems perspective. World Psychiatry,
18(1), 101–102.
83.
MburuG.RamM.OxenhamD.HaamujompaC.IorpendaK.FergusonL. (2014).
Responding to adolescents living with HIV in Zambia: A social–ecological approach. Children & Youth Services Review,
45, 9–17. doi:10.1016/j.childyouth.2014.03.033
84.
MkhatshwaN. (2017).
The gendered experiences of children in child-headed households in Swaziland. African Journal of AIDS Research,
16(4), 365–372. doi:10.2989/16085906.2017.1389756
85.
MkhizeN. (2006). African traditions and the social, economic and moral dimensions of fatherhood. In RichterL.MorrellR. (Eds.), Baba: Men and fatherhood in South Africa (pp. 183–198).
Cape Town, South Africa:
HSRC Press.
86.
MmariK.MichaelisA.KiroK. (2009).
Risk and protective factors for HIV among orphans and non-orphans in Tanzania. Culture, Health & Sexuality,
11(8), 799–809.
87.
MotsaN. D.MorojeleP. J. (2017).
Narratives of resilience among learners in a rural primary school in Swaziland.Education as Change,
21(1), 155–173.
88.
MotsamaiM. (2017). Personhood and rights in an African tradition. Politikon,
45(2), 217–231. doi: 10.1080/02589346.2017.1339176
89.
MpofuE. (Ed.). (2011). Counselling people of African ancestry.
New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press.
90.
MunfordR.SandersJ. (2015).
Young people’s search for agency: Making sense of their experiences and taking control. Qualitative Social Work,
14(5), 616–633. doi:10.1177/1473325014565149
91.
MuthukrishnaA.SamD. L. (2011). Deconstructing counseling psychology for the African context. In MpofuE. (Ed.), Counselling people of African ancestry (pp. 75–92).
New York, NY:
Cambridge University Press.
92.
NamyS.FarisD.NakerD.CarlsonC.Norcini PalaA.KnightL., … DevriesK. (2017).
Gender, violence and resilience among Ugandan adolescents. Child Abuse & Neglect,
70, 303–314. doi:10.1016/j.chiabu.2017.06.015
93.
NgomP.MagadiM. A.OwuorT. (2003).
Parental presence and adolescent reproductive health among the Nairobi urban poor. Journal of Adolescent Health,
33(5), 369–377.
94.
NsamenangA. B. (2006).
Human ontogenesis: An indigenous African view on development and intelligence. International Journal of Psychology,
41(4), 293–297.
95.
O’MalleyJ.WardlawT.YouD.HugL.AnthonyD. (2014).
Africa’s child demographics and the world’s future.The Lancet,
384(9945), 730–732.
96.
OmigbodunO.Kusi-MensahK.Bella-AwusahT.AniC. (2017). Changing landscape of child and adolescent mental health in sub-Saharan Africa. In OmigbodunO.OyebodeF. (Eds.), Contemporary issues in mental health care in sub-Saharan Africa (pp. 93–122).
Bodija, Nigeria:
Book Builders Editions Africa.
97.
Panter-BrickC. (2015). Culture and resilience: Next steps for theory and practice. In TheronL. C., LiebenbergL.UngarM. (Eds.), Youth resilience and culture: Commonalities and complexities (pp. 233–244).
Dordrecht, Netherlands:
Springer.
98.
Panter-BrickC.HadfieldK.DajaniR.EggermanM.AgerA.UngarM. (2018).
Resilience in context: A brief and culturally grounded measure for Syrian refugee and Jordanian host‐community adolescents. Child Development,
89(5), 1803–1820.
99.
PayneR. (2012).
“Extraordinary survivors” or “ordinary lives”? Embracing “everyday agency” in social interventions with child-headed households in Zambia. Children’s Geographies,
10(4), 399–411. doi:10.1080/14733285.2012.726071
100.
PetersM. D.GodfreyC. M.KhalilH.McInerneyP.ParkerD.SoaresC. B. (2015).
Guidance for conducting systematic scoping reviews. International Journal of Evidence-Based Healthcare,
13(3), 141–146.
101.
PfeifferC.AhorluC. K.AlbaS.ObristB. (2017).
Understanding resilience of female adolescents towards teenage pregnancy: A cross-sectional survey in Dar es Salaam, Tanzania. Reproductive Health,
14(1), Article 77. doi:10.1186/s12978-017-0338-x
102.
PhamM. T.RajićA.GreigJ. D.SargeantJ. M.PapadopoulosA.McEwenS. A. (2014).
A scoping review of scoping reviews: advancing the approach and enhancing the consistency. Research Synthesis Methods,
5(4), 371–385.
103.
PhashaT. N. (2010).
Educational resilience among African survivors of child sexual abuse in South Africa. Journal of Black Studies,
40(6), 1234–1253.
104.
PlonskiP.TeferraA.BradyR. (2013, November 23). Why are more African countries adopting English as an official language? Paper presented at African Studies Association Annual Conference, Baltimore, Maryland. Retrieved from https://www.booksforafrica.org/assets/documents/2013-ASA-Conference-English-Language-in-Africa-PAPER.pdf
105.
RampheleM. (2012). Conversations with my sons and daughters.
Johannesburg, South Africa:
Penguin Books.
106.
RutterM. (2012). Resilience: Causal pathways and social ecology. In UngarM. (Ed.), The social ecology of resilience (pp. 33–42).
New York, NY:
Springer.
107.
Salifu YendorkJ.SomhlabaN. Z. (2017).
“I am happy because of god”: Religion and spirituality for well-being in Ghanaian orphanage-placed children. Psychology of Religion and Spirituality,
9, S32–S39. doi:10.1037/rel0000094
108.
SawyerS. M.AzzopardiP. S.WickremarathneD.PattonG. C. (2018). The age of adolescence. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health,
2(3), 223–228.
109.
SeymourC. (2012).
Ambiguous agencies: Coping and survival in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo. Children’s Geographies,
10(4), 373–384. doi:10.1080/14733285.2012.726073
110.
SharkeyD. (2008).
Contradictions in girls’ education in a post-conflict setting. Compare: A Journal of Comparative Education,
38(5), 569–579. doi:10.1080/03057920802351333
111.
SkovdalM. (2012).
Pathologising healthy children? A review of the literature exploring the mental health of HIV-affected children in sub-Saharan Africa. Transcultural Psychiatry,
49(3–4), 461–491.
112.
SkovdalM.AndreouliE. (2011).
Using identity and recognition as a framework to understand and promote the resilience of caregiving children in western Kenya. Journal of Social Policy,
40(3), 613–630. doi:10.1017/S0047279410000693
113.
SsewanyanaD.MwangalaP. N.van BaarA.NewtonC. R.AbubakarA. (2018). Health risk behaviour among adolescents living with HIV in Sub-Saharan Africa: A systematic review and meta-analysis. BioMed Research International, 2018, Article 7375831. https://doi.org/10.1155/2018/7375831
114.
StarkL.LandisD.ThomsonB.PottsA. (2016).
Navigating support, resilience, and care: Exploring the impact of informal social networks on the rehabilitation and care of young female survivors of sexual violence in northern Uganda. Peace and Conflict: Journal of Peace Psychology,
22(3), 217–225. doi:10.1037/pac0000162
115.
TheronL. (2019).
Championing the resilience of sub-Saharan adolescents: Pointers for psychologists. South African Journal of Psychology,
49(3), 325–336. doi: 10.1177/0081246318801749
116.
TheronL. C.TheronA. M. C. (2010).
A critical review of studies of South African youth resilience, 1990–2008. South African Journal of Science,
106(7–8). Retrieved from http://www.sajs.co.za
117.
TolW. A.SongS.JordansM. J. D. (2013).
Annual research review: Resilience and mental health in children and adolescents living in areas of armed conflict. A systematic review of findings in low- and middle-income countries. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,
54, 445–460. doi: 10.1111/jcpp.12053
118.
TriccoA. C.LillieE.ZarinW.O’BrienK. K.ColquhounH.LevacD., … & HempelS. (2018).
PRISMA extension for scoping reviews (PRISMA-ScR): Checklist and explanation. Annals of Internal Medicine,
169(7), 467–473.
119.
TroutL.WexlerL.MosesJ. (2018).
Beyond two worlds: Identity narratives and the aspirational futures of Alaska Native youth. Transcultural Psychiatry,
55, 800–820.
120.
UngarM. (2011).
The social ecology of resilience: Addressing contextual and cultural ambiguity of a nascent construct. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry,
81(1), 1–17.
121.
UngarM. (2012). Social ecologies and their contribution to resilience. InUngarM. (Ed.), The social ecology of resilience (pp. 13–32).
New York, NY:
Springer.
Van BredaA. D.TheronL. C. (2018).
A critical review of South African child and youth resilience studies, 2009–2017. Child and Youth Services Review,
91, 237–247. doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2018.06.022
124.
VindevogelS.AgerA.SchiltzJ.BroekaertE.DerluynI. (2015).
Toward a culturally sensitive conceptualization of resilience: Participatory research with war-affected communities in northern Uganda. Transcultural Psychiatry,
52(3), 396–416. doi:10.1177/1363461514565852
125.
WardL. M.EyberC. (2009).
Resiliency of children in child-headed households in Rwanda: Implications for community-based psychosocial interventions. Intervention,
7(1), 17–33. doi:10.1097/WTF.0b013e32832ad3ac
126.
WernerE. E. (2013). What can we learn about resilience from large-scale longitudinal studies? In GoldsteinS.BrooksR. B. (Eds.), Handbook of resilience in children (2nd ed., pp. 87–102).
New York, NY:
Springer.
127.
WinsorR. E.SkovdalM. (2011).
Agency, resilience and coping: Exploring the psychosocial effects of goat ownership on orphaned and vulnerable children in western Kenya. Journal of Community & Applied Social Psychology,
21(5), 433–450.
