The objective of this study was to investigate how environmental and structural changes to a trans outdoor work environment impacted sex workers in Vancouver, Canada. The issue of changes to the work area arose during qualitative interviews with 33 trans sex workers. In response, ethnographic walks that incorporated photography were undertaken with trans sex workers. Changes to the work environment were found to increase vulnerabilities to client violence, displace trans sex workers, and affect policing practices. Within a criminalized context, construction and gentrification enhanced vulnerabilities to violence and harassment from police and residents.
AlfredT (2009) Colonialism and state dependency. Journal de la santé autochtone5: 42–60.
2.
AndersonSJiaJXLiuVet al. (2015) Violence prevention and municipal licensing of indoor sex work venues in the Greater Vancouver Area: Narratives of migrant sex workers, managers and business owners. Culture, Health & Sexuality17(7): 825–841.
3.
ArgentoEDuffPBinghamBet al. (2015) Social cohesion among sex workers and client condom refusal in a Canadian setting: Implications for structural and community-led interventions. AIDS and Behavior20: 1275, DOI:10.1007/s10461-015-1230-8. Available at: http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10461-015-1230-8 (accessed 3 November 2016).
4.
AtkinsMLaingM (2012) Walking the beat and doing business: Exploring spaces of male sex work and public sex. Sexualities15(5–6): 622–643.
5.
BauerGRHammondRTraversRet al. (2009) ‘I don’t think this is theoretical; this is our lives’: How erasure impacts health care for transgender people. Journal of the Association of Nurses in AIDS Care20(5): 348–361.
6.
Bhattacharjya M, Fulu E, Murthy L, et al. (2015) The right(s) evidence – Sex work, violence and HIV in Asia: A multi-country qualitative study. Bangkok: United Nations Population Fund (UNFPA), United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), and Asia Pacific Network of Sex Workers (CASAM).
7.
BrockD (2009) Making Work, Making Trouble: The Social Regulation of Sexual Labour, Toronto: University of Toronto Press.
8.
BruckertCParentCRobitailleP (2003) Erotic Service/Erotic Dance Establishments: Two Types of Marginalized Labor, Ottawa, ON: University of Ottawa.
9.
City of Vancouver (September 2015) City of Vancouver sex work response guidelines: A balanced approach to safety, health and well-being for sex workers and neighbourhoods impacted by sex work. Vancouver, BC, 1–4.
10.
CohanDLutnickADavidsonPet al. (2006) Sex worker health: San Francisco style. Sexually Transmitted Infections82(5): 418–422.
11.
Deering KN, Chettiar J, Chan K, et al. (2012) Sex work and the public health impacts of the 2010 Olympic Games. Sexually Transmitted Infections. DOI: sextrans-2011-050235.
12.
DeeringKNRuschMAmramOet al. (2014) Piloting a ‘spatial isolation’ index: The built environment and sexual and drug use risks to sex workers. International Journal of Drug Policy25(3): 533–542.
13.
DeCuir-GunbyJTMarshallPLMcCullochAW (2011) Developing and using a codebook for the analysis of interview data: An example from a professional development research project. Field Methods23(2): 136–155.
14.
de VriesKM (2015) Transgender people of color at the center: Conceptualizing a new intersectional model. Ethnicities15(1): 3–27.
15.
EdelmanEA (2014) ‘Walking while transgender’: Necropolitical regulations of trans feminine bodies of colour in the nation’s capital. In: HaritawornJKuntsmanAPosoccoS (eds) Queer Necropolitics, New York: Routledge, pp. 172–190.
16.
EvansJJonesP (2011) The walking interview: Methodology, mobility and place. Applied Geography31(2): 849–858.
17.
FarmerPBourgoisPScheperHughesNet al. (2004) An anthropology of structural violence 1. Current Anthropology45(3): 305–325.
18.
FielandKWaltersKSimoniJ (2007) Determinants of health among Two-Spirit American Indians and Alaska Natives. In: MeyerINorthridgeM (eds) The Health of Sexual Minorities, New York: Springer, pp. 268–300.
19.
FortinRJacksonSFMaherJet al. (2014) I WAS HERE: Young mothers who have experienced homelessness use Photovoice and participatory qualitative analysis to demonstrate strengths and assets. Global Health Promotion22(1): 8–20.
20.
GaltungJ (1969) Violence, peace, and peace research. Journal of Peace Research6(3): 167–191.
21.
GarciaMVLehmanY (2011) Issues concerning the informality and outdoor sex work performed by travestis in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Archives of Sexual Behavior40(6): 1211–1221.
22.
GhoseTSwendemanDGeorgeSet al. (2008) Mobilizing collective identity to reduce HIV risk among sex workers in Sonagachi, India: The boundaries, consciousness, negotiation framework. Social Science & Medicine67(2): 311–320.
23.
Government of Canada (6 November 2014) Statutes of Canada 2014: Protection of Communities and Exploited Persons Act. Second Session, Forty-first Parliament, 62–63 Elizabeth II, 2013–2014. Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada.
24.
GuptaA (2012) Red Tape: Bureaucracy, Structural Violence, and Poverty in India, Durham, NC: Duke University Press.
25.
HamiltonJL (2014) The golden age of prostitution: One woman’s personal account of an outdoor brothel in Vancouver, 1975–1984. In: IrvingDRajR (eds) Trans Activism in Canada: A Reader, Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars’ Press, pp. 27–32.
26.
HottonALGarofaloRKuhnsLMet al. (2013) Substance use as a mediator of the relationship between life stress and sexual risk among young transgender women. AIDS Education and Prevention25(1): 62–71.
27.
HubbardP (2004) Cleansing the metropolis: Sex work and the politics of zero tolerance. Urban Studies41(9): 1687–1702.
28.
HubbardPSandersT (2003) Making space for sex work: Female street prostitution and the production of urban space. International Journal of Urban and Regional Research27(1): 75–89.
29.
Hunt S (2013) Decolonizing sex work: Developing an intersectional indigenous approach. In: van der Meulen E, Durisin EM and Love V (eds) Selling Sex: Experience, Advocacy, and Research on Sex Work in Canada. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, pp. 82–100.
30.
HwahngSJNuttbrockL (2007) Sex workers, fem queens, and cross-dressers: Differential marginalizations and HIV vulnerabilities among three ethnocultural male-to-female transgender communities in New York City. Sexuality Research and Social Policy4(4): 36–59.
31.
KatsulisY (2009) Sex Work and the City: The Social Geography of Health and Safety in Tijuana, Mexico, Austin: University of Texas Press.
32.
KatsulisYDurfeeALopezVet al. (2015) Predictors of workplace violence among female sex workers in Tijuana, Mexico. Violence Against Women21(5): 571–597.
33.
KernL (2015) Rhythms of gentrification: Eventfulness and slow violence in a happening neighbourhood. Cultural Geographies23(3): 441–457.
34.
KrüsiAChettiarJRidgwayAet al. (2012) Negotiating safety and sexual risk reduction with clients in unsanctioned safer indoor sex work environments: A qualitative study. American Journal of Public Health102(6): 1154–1159.
35.
KrüsiAKerrTTaylorCet al. (2016) ‘They won’t change it back in their heads that we’re trash’: The intersection of sex work related stigma and evolving policing strategies. Sociology of Health and Illness38(7): 1137–1150. DOI: 10.1111/1467-9566.12436. Epub 26 April 2016.
36.
Krüsi A, Kerr T, Taylor C, et al. (2016) ‘They won’t change it back in their heads that we’re trash’: The intersection of sex work related stigma and evolving policing strategies.
37.
KrüsiAPaceyKBirdLet al. (2014) Criminalisation of clients: Reproducing vulnerabilities for violence and poor health among street-based sex workers in Canada – qualitative study. BMJ Open4(6): Published online 2 June 2014. e005191. DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2014-005191.
38.
KusenbachM (2003) Street phenomenology: The go-along as ethnographic research tool. Ethnography4(3): 455–485.
39.
LaingMCookIR (2014) Governing sex work in the city. Geography Compass8(8): 505–515.
40.
LewisJMaticka-TyndaleEShaverFet al. (2005) Managing risk and safety on the job: The experiences of Canadian sex workers. Journal of Psychology & Human Sexuality17(1–2): 147–167.
41.
LinkBGPhelanJC (2001) Conceptualizing stigma. Annual Review of Sociology27: 363–385.
42.
LippmanSADoniniADíazJet al. (2010) Social-environmental factors and protective sexual behavior among sex workers: The Encontros intervention in Brazil. American Journal of Public Health100(S1): S216–223.
43.
LowmanJ (1986) Prostitution in Vancouver: Some notes on the genesis of a social problem. Canadian Journal of Criminology28: 1–16.
44.
LowmanJ (2000) Violence and the outlaw status of (street) prostitution in Canada. Violence Against Women6(9): 987–1011.
45.
Lyons T, Krüsi A, Pierre L, et al. (2015) Negotiating violence in the context of transphobia and criminalization: The experiences of trans sex workers in Vancouver, Canada. Qualitative Health Research. DOI: 1049732315613311. Available at: http://qhr.sagepub.com/content/early/2015/10/28/1049732315613311.full (accessed 31 October 2015).
46.
MeyerD (2012) An intersectional analysis of lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) people’s evaluations of anti-queer violence. Gender & Society26(6): 849–873.
47.
MoolchaemPLiamputtongPO’HalloranPet al. (2015) The lived experiences of transgender persons: A meta-synthesis. Journal of Gay & Lesbian Social Services27(2): 143–171.
48.
NemotoTBodekerBIwamotoM (2011) Social support, exposure to violence and transphobia, and correlates of depression among male-to-female transgender women with a history of sex work. American Journal of Public Health101(10): 1980–1988.
49.
O’DohertyT (2011) Victimization in off-street sex industry work. Violence Against Women17(7): 944–963. DOI: 10.1177/1077801211412917. Epub 10 June 2011.
50.
PoteatTGermanDFlynnC (2016) The conflation of gender and sex: Gaps and opportunities in HIV data among transgender women and MSM. Global Public Health11(7–8): 1–14.
51.
PoteatTWirtzALRadixAet al. (2015) HIV risk and preventive interventions in transgender women sex workers. The Lancet385(9964): 274–286.
52.
PriorJHubbardPBirchP (2013) Sex worker victimization, modes of working, and location in New South Wales, Australia: A geography of victimization. Journal of Sex Research50(6): 574–586.
53.
Pyne J (2015) Transfeminist theory and action: Trans women and the contested terrain of women's services. In: O'Neill B, Swan T and Mule N (eds). LGBTQ people and Social Work: Intersectional Perspectives. Toronto, ON: Canadian Scholars Press, pp. 139–149.
54.
QuesadaJHartLKBourgoisP (2011) Structural vulnerability and health: Latino migrant laborers in the United States. Medical Anthropology30(4): 339–362.
55.
RhodesTSimicMBarosSet al. (2008) Police violence and sexual risk among female and transvestite sex workers in Serbia: Qualitative study. BMJ: British Medical Journal337(7669): 560–563.
56.
RhodesTSingerMBourgoisPet al. (2005) The social structural production of HIV risk among injecting drug users. Social Science & Medicine61(5): 1026–1044.
57.
Ristock J, Zoccole A and Passante L (2010) Aboriginal Two-Spirit and LGBTQ Migration, Mobility and Health Research Project: Final Report. Winnipeg, MB: University of Manitoba.
58.
RossBL (2010) Sex and (evacuation from) the city: The moral and legal regulation of sex workers in Vancouver’s West End, 1975–1985. Sexualities13(2): 197–218.
59.
RossBL (2012) Outdoor brothel culture: The un/making of a transsexual stroll in Vancouver’s West End, 1975–1984. Journal of Historical Sociology25(1): 126–150.
60.
RossBSullivanR (2012) Tracing lines of horizontal hostility: How sex workers and gay activists battled for space, voice, and belonging in Vancouver, 1975–1985. Sexualities15(5–6): 604–621.
61.
SampsonL (2014) The obscenities of this country: Canada v. Bedford and the reform of Canadian prostitution laws. Duke Journal of Gender Law & Policy22: 137–172.
62.
SandersT (2004a) A continuum of risk? The management of health, physical and emotional risks by female sex workers. Sociology of Health & Illness26(5): 557–574.
63.
SandersT (2004b) The risks of street prostitution: Punters, police and protesters. Urban Studies41(9): 1703–1717.
64.
SausaLKeatleyJOperarioD (2007) Perceived risks and benefits of sex work among transgender women of color in San Francisco. Archives of Sexual Behavior36(6): 768–777.
ShannonKKerrTAllinottSet al. (2008a) Social and structural violence and power relations in mitigating HIV risk of drug-using women in survival sex work. Social Science & Medicine66(4): 911–921.
67.
ShannonKKerrTStrathdeeSAet al. (2009a) Prevalence and structural correlates of gender based violence among a prospective cohort of female sex workers. BMJ: British Medical Journal339(7718): 442–445.
68.
ShannonKRuschMShovellerJet al. (2008b) Mapping violence and policing as an environmental-structural barrier to health service and syringe availability among substance-using women in street-level sex work. International Journal of Drug Policy19(2): 140–147.
69.
ShannonKStrathdeeSAGoldenbergSMet al. (2015) Global epidemiology of HIV among female sex workers: Influence of structural determinants. The Lancet385(9962): 55–71.
70.
ShannonKStrathdeeSAShovellerJet al. (2009b) Structural and environmental barriers to condom use negotiation with clients among female sex workers: Implications for HIV-prevention strategies and policy. American Journal of Public Health99(4): 659.
71.
SmithN (2002) New Globalism, New urbanism: Gentrification as global urban strategy. Antipode34(3): 427–450.
72.
Statistics Canada (2013) Aboriginal peoples in Canada: First Nations people, Métis and Inuit: National household survey, 2011. Ottawa, ON.
73.
StrathdeeSAPatrickDMCurrieSLet al. (1997) Needle exchange is not enough: Lessons from the Vancouver injecting drug use study. AIDS11(8): F59–65.
74.
The Correctional Investigator (2014) Annual Report of the Office of the Correctional Investigator 2013–2014. Ottawa, ON: Government of Canada.
75.
ThomasDR (2006) A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data. American Journal of Evaluation27(2): 237–246.
76.
Transgender Law Center (2009) State of Transgender California, San Francisco, CA: Transgender Law Center.
77.
Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (2015) Honouring the Truth, Reconciling for the Future: Summary of the Final Report of the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada. Winnipeg, MB.
78.
White HughtoJMReisnerSLPachankisJE (2015) Transgender stigma and health: A critical review of stigma determinants, mechanisms, and interventions. Social Science & Medicine147: 222–231. DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.socscimed.2015.11.010.
79.
WoodEHoggRSLimaVet al. (2008) Highly active antiretroviral therapy and survival in HIV-infected injection drug users. JAMA300(5): 550–554.
Yi’EnC (2014) Telling stories of the city: Walking ethnography, affective materialities, and mobile encounters. Space and Culture17(3): 211–223. Published online before print 30 October 2013.
