Previous research indicates that autistic individuals are more likely to be bullied, and that they experience heightened anxiety and diminished self-esteem. These factors are known to predict heightened compliance, which is the tendency to agree with or carry out the requests and demands of others. This has a range of potentially serious consequences, particularly for an autistic person. This study utilised self-report (the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale) and behavioural measures of compliance (the door-in-the-face task) with 26 autistic and 26 typically developing adults. Participants also completed measures of early life bullying experiences, anxiety and self-esteem. Autistic participants were more compliant on both self-report and experimental tasks, and they reported more bullying experiences, higher anxiety and reduced self-esteem. Looking at both groups, bullying, anxiety and self-esteem were all correlated with self-reported compliance on the Gudjonsson Compliance Scale, yet only self-esteem was a unique predictor. None of these predictor variables related to behavioural compliance on the door in the face; nor did Gudjonsson Compliance Scale scores predict door-in-the-face performance, which may be better explained by situational and motivational factors. Findings have important implications for a range of real-life settings including requests made in the context of research, schools, the criminal justice system and the workplace.
AdamsREFredstromBKDuncanAWet al. (2014) Using self- and parent-reports to test the association between peer victimization and internalizing symptoms in verbally fluent adolescents with ASD. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders44: 861–872.
2.
AllenDEvansCHiderAet al. (2008) Offending behaviour in adults with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders38(4): 748–758.
3.
AllisonCAuyeungBBaron-CohenS (2012) Toward brief ‘red flags’ for autism screening: the short autism spectrum quotient and the short quantitative checklist in 1,000 cases and 3,000 controls. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry51(2): 202–212.
4.
American Psychiatric Association (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. 5th ed.Arlington, VA: American Psychiatric Publishing.
5.
BalfeMTantamD (2010) A descriptive social and health profile of a community sample of adults and adolescents with Asperger syndrome. BMC Research Notes3: 300.
6.
Barry-WalshJBMullenPE (2004) Forensic aspects of Asperger’s syndrome. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology15: 96–107.
7.
BegeerSFinkEvan der MeijdenSet al. (2016) Bullying-related behaviour in a mainstream high school versus a high school for autism: self-report and peer-report. Autism20: 562–571.
8.
BejerotSHumbleMB (2013) Childhood clumsiness and peer victimization: a case-control study of psychiatric patients. BMC Psychiatry13(1): 68.
9.
BowlerDMWorleyK (1994) Susceptibility to social influence in adults with Asperger’s syndrome: a research note. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry and Allied Disciplines35(4): 689–697.
10.
BrewerNYingABWYoungRet al. (2017) Theory of mind and the detection of suspicious behavior. Journal of Applied Research in Memory and Cognition7: 123–131.
11.
Brown-LavoieSMVieciliMAWeissJA (2014) Sexual knowledge and victimization in adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders44: 2185–2196.
12.
BruckMLondonKLandaRet al. (2007) Autobiographical memory and suggestibility in children with autism spectrum disorder. Development and Psychopathology19: 73–95.
13.
CantareroKGamian-WilkMDolinskiD (2017) Being inconsistent and compliant: the moderating role of the preference for consistency in the door-in-the-face technique. Personality and Individual Differences115: 54–57.
14.
CappadociaMCWeissJPeplerD (2012) Bullying experiences among children and youth with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders42(2): 266–277.
15.
Carter-SowellARChenZWilliamsKD (2008) Ostracism increases social susceptibility. Social Influence3(3): 143–153.
16.
CastelliIMassaroDSanfeyAGet al. (2014) ‘What is fair for you?’ Judgments and decisions about fairness and theory of mind. European Journal of Developmental Psychology11: 49–62.
17.
ChanAC-yAuTK-f (2011) Getting children to do more academic work: foot-in-the-door versus door-in-the-face. Teaching and Teacher Education27(6): 982–985.
18.
CialdiniRBVincentJELewisSKet al. (1975) Reciprocal concessions procedure for inducing compliance: the door-in-the-face technique. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology31(2): 206–215.
19.
CooperKSmithLRussellA (2017) Social identity, self-esteem, and mental health in autism. European Journal of Social Psychology47: 844–854.
20.
CroenLAZerboOQianYet al. (2015) The health status of adults on the autism spectrum. Autism19: 814–823.
21.
DillardJPHunterJEBurgoonM (1984) Sequential-request persuasive strategies: meta-analysis of foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face. Human Communication Research10: 461–488.
22.
DrakeKEEganV (2017) Investigating gender differences in the factor structure of the Gudjonsson compliance scale. Legal and Criminological Psychology22: 88–98.
23.
FazioRLPietzCADenneyRL (2012) An estimate of the prevalence of autism-spectrum disorders in an incarcerated population. Open Access Journal of Forensic Psychology4: 69–80.
24.
FeeleyTFicoAEShawAZet al. (2017) Is the door-in-the-face a concession?Communication Quarterly65: 97–123.
25.
FeeleyTHAnkerAEAloeAM (2012) The door-in-the-face persuasive message strategy: a meta-analysis of the first 35 years. Communication Monographs79: 316–343.
26.
FernEFMonroeKBAvilaRA (1986) Effectiveness of multiple request strategies: a synthesis of research results. Journal of Marketing Research23: 144–152.
27.
FindonJCadmanTStewartCSet al. (2016) Screening for co-occurring conditions in adults with autism spectrum disorder using the strengths and difficulties questionnaire: a pilot study. Autism Research9: 1353–1363.
28.
FinkEOlthofTGoossensFet al. (2018) Bullying-related behaviour in adolescents with autism: links with autism severity and emotional and behavioural problems. Autism22: 684–692.
29.
FisherMMoskowitzAHodappR (2012) Vulnerability and experiences related to social victimization among individuals with intellectual and developmental disabilities. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities5: 32–48.
30.
GeschwindDH (2009) Advances in autism. Annual Review of Medicine60: 367–380.
31.
GillottAStandenPJ (2007) Levels of anxiety and sources of stress in adults with autism. Journal of Intellectual Disabilities11(4): 359–370.
32.
GuadagnoREAsherTDemaineLJet al. (2001) When saying yes leads to saying no: Preference for consistency and the reverse foot-in-the-door effect. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin27: 859–867.
33.
GuadagnoRECialdiniRB (2010) Preference for consistency and social influence: a review of current research findings. Social Influence5: 152–163.
34.
GudjonssonGH (1988) Interrogative suggestibility: its relationship with assertiveness, social-evaluative anxiety, state anxiety and method of coping. British Journal of Clinical Psychology27(2): 159–166.
35.
GudjonssonGH (1989) Compliance in an interrogative situation: a new scale. Personality and Individual Differences10(5): 535–540.
36.
GudjonssonGH (1997) The Gudjonsson Suggestibility Scales Manual. Hove: Psychology Press.
37.
GudjonssonGH (2003) The Psychology of Interrogations and Confessions: A Handbook. Chichester: John Wiley.
38.
GudjonssonGHClarkNK (1986) Suggestibility in police interrogation: a social psychological model. Social Behaviour1(2): 83–104.
39.
GudjonssonGHMackeithJA (1990) A proven case of false confession: psychological aspects of the coerced-compliant type. Medicine, Science and the Law30(4): 329–335.
40.
GudjonssonGHSigurdssonJF (2003) The relationship of compliance with coping strategies and self-esteem. European Journal of Psychological Assessment19(2): 117–123.
41.
GudjonssonGHSigurdssonJF (2004) Motivation for offending and personality. Legal and Criminological Psychology9(1): 69–81.
42.
GudjonssonGHSigurdssonJF (2007) Motivation for offending and personality. A study among young offenders on probation. Personality and Individual Differences42(7): 1243–1253.
43.
GudjonssonGHSigurdssonJFBragasonOOet al. (2004) Compliance and personality: the vulnerability of the unstable introvert. European Journal of Personality18(5): 435–443.
44.
GudjonssonGHSigurdssonJFBragasonOOet al. (2008) Interrogative suggestibility, compliance and false confessions among prisoners and their relationship with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) symptoms. Psychological Medicine38(7): 1037–1044.
45.
GudjonssonGHSigurdssonJFBrynjólfsdóttirBet al. (2002) The relationship of compliance with anxiety, self-esteem, paranoid thinking and anger. Psychology, Crime & Law8(2): 145–153.
46.
HaasKCostleyDFalkmerMet al. (2016) Factors influencing the research participation of adults with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders46(5): 1793–1805.
47.
HamburgerMEBasileKCVivoloAM (2011) Measuring Bullying Victimization, Perpetration, and Bystander Experiences: A Compendium of Assessment Tools. Atlanta, GA: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention.
48.
HareDJGouldJMillsRet al. (1999) A Preliminary Study of Individuals with Autistic Spectrum Disorders in Three Special Hospitals in England. London: National Autistic Society.
49.
HawkerDSJBoultonMJ (2000) Twenty years’ research on peer victimization and psychosocial maladjustment: a meta-analytic review of cross-sectional studies. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry41: 441–455.
50.
HelverschouSBRasmussenKSteindalKet al. (2015) Offending profiles of individuals with autism spectrum disorder: a study of all individuals with autism spectrum disorder examined by the forensic psychiatric service in Norway between 2000 and 2010. Autism19: 850–858.
51.
HorselenbergRMerckelbachHSmeetsTet al. (2006) False confessions in the lab: Do plausibility and consequences matter? Psychology, Crime & Law12(1): 61–75.
52.
HowlinP (2002) Autistic disorders. In: HowlinPUdwinO (eds) Outcomes in Neurodevelopmental and Genetic Disorders. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.136–188.
53.
HumphreyNLewisS (2008) ‘Make me normal’: the views and experiences of pupils on the autistic spectrum in mainstream secondary schools. Autism12: 23–46.
54.
HumphreyNSymesW (2010) Responses to bullying and use of social support among pupils with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) in mainstream schools: a qualitative study. Journal of Research in Special Educational Needs10(2): 82–90.
55.
JonesRSZahlAHuwsJC (2001) First-hand accounts of emotional experiences in autism: a qualitative analysis. Disability & Society16(3): 393–401.
56.
KashdanTBWeeksJWSavostyanovaAA (2011) Whether, how, and when social anxiety shapes positive experiences and events: a self-regulatory framework and treatment implications. Clinical Psychology Review31: 786–799.
57.
KloostermanPHKelleyEACraigWMet al. (2013) Types and experiences of bullying in adolescents with an autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders7: 824–832.
58.
LaugesonEAFrankelFGantmanAet al. (2012) Evidence-based social skills training for adolescents with autism spectrum disorders: the UCLA PEERS program. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders42(6): 1025–1036.
59.
LittleL (2001) Peer victimization of children with Asperger spectrum disorders. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry40(9): 995–996.
60.
LukeLClareICHRingHet al. (2012) Decision-making difficulties experienced by adults with autism spectrum conditions. Autism16: 612–621.
61.
McCroryEHenryLHappéF (2007) Eye-witness memory and suggestibility in children with Asperger syndrome. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry48: 482–489.
62.
McDonnellJStahlDDayFet al. (2018) Interpersonal sensitivity in those at clinical high risk for psychosis mediates the association between childhood bullying victimisation and paranoid ideation: a virtual reality study. Schizophrenia Research192: 89–95.
63.
MarasKLBowlerDM (2011) Brief report: schema consistent misinformation effects in eyewitnesses with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders41: 815–820.
64.
MarasKLBowlerDM (2012) Brief report: suggestibility, compliance and psychological traits in high-functioning adults with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders6: 1168–1175.
65.
MayesSDGormanAAHillwig-GarciaJet al. (2013) Suicide ideation and attempts in children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders7: 109–119.
66.
MazefskyCAKaoJOswaldDP (2011) Preliminary evidence suggesting caution in the use of psychiatric self-report measures with adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders5: 164–174.
67.
MillarMG (2002) The effectiveness of the door-in-the-face compliance strategy on friends and strangers. The Journal of Social Psychology142(3): 295–304.
68.
The National Autistic Society (2012) The Way We Are: Autism in 2012. London: The National Autistic Society.
69.
NorthARussellAGudjonssonG (2008) High functioning autism spectrum disorders: an investigation of psychological vulnerabilities during interrogative interview. Journal of Forensic Psychiatry and Psychology19: 323–334.
70.
O’KeefeDJFiggeM (1997) A guilt-based explanation of the door-in-the-face influence strategy. Human Communication Research24: 64–81.
71.
O’KeefeDJHaleSL (1998) The door-in-the-face influence strategy: a random-effects meta-analytic review. In: RoloffME (ed.) Communication Yearbook 21. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE, pp.1–33.
72.
PascualAGuéguenN (2005) Foot-in-the-door and door-in-the-face: a comparative meta-analytic study. Psychological Reports96: 122–128.
73.
RavaJShattuckPRastJet al. (2017) The prevalence and correlates of involvement in the criminal justice system among youth on the autism spectrum. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders47: 340–346.
74.
ReijntjesAKamphuisJHPrinziePet al. (2010) Peer victimization and internalizing problems in children: a meta-analysis of longitudinal studies. Child Abuse & Neglect34: 244–252.
75.
RobinsonLSpencerMDThomsonLDGet al. (2012) Evaluation of a screening instrument for autism spectrum disorders in prisoners. PLoS ONE7: 1–8.
76.
RosbrookAWhittinghamK (2010) Autistic traits in the general population: what mediates the link with depressive and anxious symptomatology?Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders4: 415–424.
77.
RosenbergM (1965) Society and the Adolescent Self-Image. Middletown, CT: Wesleyan University Press.
78.
RussellAJMurphyCMWilsonEet al. (2016) The mental health of individuals referred for assessment of autism spectrum disorder in adulthood: a clinic report. Autism20: 623–627.
79.
SallyDHillE (2006) The development of interpersonal strategy: autism, theory-of-mind, cooperation and fairness. Journal of Economic Psychology27: 73–97.
80.
SchäferMKornSSmithPKet al. (2004) Lonely in the crowd: recollections of bullying. British Journal of Developmental Psychology22(3): 379–394.
81.
SchmittDPAllikJ (2005) Simultaneous administration of the Rosenberg self-esteem scale in 53 nations: exploring the universal and culture-specific features of global self-esteem. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology89(4): 623–642.
82.
SchonellFJGoodacreE (1974) The Psychology and Teaching of Reading. 5th ed.Edinburgh: Oliver and Boyd.
83.
ScraggPShahA (1994) Prevalence of Asperger’s syndrome in a secure hospital. The British Journal of Psychiatry165: 679–682.
84.
SenjuASouthgateVWhiteSet al. (2009) Mindblind eyes: an absence of spontaneous theory of mind in Asperger syndrome. Science325: 883–885.
85.
ShalomDBMostofskySHHazlettRLet al. (2006) Normal physiological emotions but differences in expression of conscious feelings in children with high-functioning autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders36: 395–400.
86.
ShtayermmanO (2007) Peer victimization in adolescents and young adults diagnosed with Asperger’s syndrome: a link to depressive symptomatology, anxiety symptomatology and suicidal ideation. Issues in Comprehensive Pediatric Nursing30(3): 87–107.
87.
SiegelRSLa GrecaAMHarrisonHM (2009) Peer victimization and social anxiety in adolescents: prospective and reciprocal relationships. Journal of Youth and Adolescence38: 1096–1109.
88.
SigurdssonJFGudjonssonGH (1996) The psychological characteristics of ‘false confessors’. A study among Icelandic prison inmates and juvenile offenders. Personality and Individual Differences20: 321–329.
89.
SimonoffEPicklesACharmanTet al. (2008) Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry47: 921–929.
90.
SiponmaaLKristianssonMJonsonCet al. (2001) Juvenile and young adult mentally disordered offenders: the role of child neuropsychiatric disorders. Journal of American Academy of Psychiatry and the Law29: 420–426.
91.
SnaithRPConstantopoulosAAJardineMYet al. (1978) A clinical scale for the self-assessment of irritability. The British Journal of Psychiatry132(2): 164–171.
92.
SoderstromH (2005) Clinical neuropsychiatric symptoms in perpetrators of severe crimes against persons. Nordic Journal of Psychiatry59: 246–252.
93.
SofronoffKDarkEStoneV (2011) Social vulnerability and bullying in children with Asperger syndrome. Autism15: 355–372.
94.
SpitzerRLKroenkeKWilliamsJBet al. (2006) A brief measure for assessing generalized anxiety disorder: the GAD-7. Archives of Internal Medicine166(10): 1092–1097.
95.
SteeleCM (1975) Name-calling and compliance. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology31: 361–369.
96.
TakagishiHKameshimaSSchugJet al. (2010) Theory of mind enhances preference for fairness. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology105: 130–137.
97.
TurcottePSheaLLMandellD (2017) School discipline, hospitalization, and police contact overlap among individuals with autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders48: 883–891.
98.
TurnerMMTamboriniRLimonMSet al. (2007) The moderators and mediators of door-in-the-face requests: is it a negotiation or a helping experience?Communication Monographs74: 333–356.
99.
TusingKJDillardJP (2000) The psychological reality of the door-in-the-face. It’s helping, not bargaining. Journal of Language and Social Psychology19: 5–25.
100.
UngDMcBrideNCollierAet al. (2016) The relationship between peer victimization and the psychological characteristics of youth with autism spectrum disorder. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders32: 70–79.
101.
ValmaggiaLRDayFLKrollJet al. (2015) Bullying victimisation and paranoid ideation in people at ultra high risk for psychosis. Schizophrenia Research168(1–2): 68–73.
102.
VohraRMadhavanSSambamoorthiU (2016) Emergency department use among adults with autism spectrum disorders (ASD). Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders46(4): 1441–1454.
103.
WainscotJJNaylorPSutcliffePet al. (2008) Relationships with peers and use of the school environment of mainstream secondary school pupils with Asperger Syndrome (high-functioning autism): a case-control study. Inter-national Journal of Psychology and Psychological Therapy8: 25–38.
104.
WighamSBartonSParrJRet al. (2017) A systematic review of the rates of depression in children and adults with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder. Journal of Mental Health Research in Intellectual Disabilities10(4): 267–287.
105.
WilliamsKD (2009) Ostracism: A temporal need threat model. Advances in Experimental Social Psychology41: 275–314.
106.
ZablotskyBBradshawCPAndersonCMet al. (2013) The association between bullying and the psychological functioning of children with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics34(1): 1–8.
107.
ZablotskyBBradshawCPAndersonCMet al. (2014) Risk factors for bullying among children with autism spectrum disorders. Autism18(4): 419–427.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
