Socioeconomic status and intelligence quotient as predictors of psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder and in their siblings
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online November, 2016
Socioeconomic status and intelligence quotient as predictors of psychiatric disorders in children and adolescents with high-functioning autism spectrum disorder and in their siblings
Previous studies have shown high rates of comorbid disorders in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder, but failed to compare them with general population and few of them have identified predictors of comorbidity. This study compared the rates of psychiatric disorders in 50 children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorder, 24 of their siblings, 32 controls from general population and 22 of their siblings. Children and adolescent with autism spectrum disorder and their siblings had higher rates of attention deficit and hyperactivity disorder compared to controls. Lower socioeconomic status and intelligence quotient were the main risk factors. The contribution of socioeconomic status and intelligence quotient to increase the risk of developing comorbidity in autism spectrum disorder and psychopathology in their siblings deserves further study.
American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR). 4th ed. Text revision. Washington, DC: APA.
2.
American Psychiatric Association (APA) (2013) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5). 5th ed. Arlington, VA: APA.
3.
AmrMRaddadDEl-MeheshF. (2012) Comorbid psychiatric disorders in Arab children with autism spectrum disorders. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders6(1): 240–248.
4.
AndrewsGPineDSHobbsMJ. (2009) Neurodevelopmental disorders: cluster 2 of the proposed metastructure for DSM-V and ICD-11. Psychological Medicine39(12): 2013–2023.
5.
BelliniS (2004) Social skill deficits and anxiety in high-functioning adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Focus on Autism and Other Developmental Disabilities19: 78–86.
6.
BishopDVMMayberyMWongD. (2006) Characteristics of the broader phenotype in autism: a study of siblings using the Children’s Communication Checklist-2. American Journal of Medical Genetics141(2): 117–122.
7.
BruinEIFerdinandRFMeesterS. (2007) High rates of psychiatric co-morbidity in PDD-NOS. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders37(5): 877–886.
8.
DeaultLC (2010) A systematic review of parenting in relation to the development of comorbidities and functional impairments in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Child Psychiatry and Human Development41(2): 168–192.
9.
EhlersSGillbergCWingL (1999) A screening questionnaire for Asperger syndrome and other high-functioning autism spectrum disorders in school age children. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders29(2): 129–141.
10.
GáleraCBouvardMPLagardeE. (2013) Childhood attention problems and socioeconomic status in adulthood: 18-year follow-up. British Journal of Psychiatry201(1): 20–25.
11.
GjevikEEldevikSFjæran-GranumT. (2011) Kiddie-SADS reveals high rates of DSM-IV disorders in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders41(6): 761–769.
12.
GreenSABen-SassonASotoTW. (2010) Anxiety disorders and sensory over-responsivity in children with autism spectrum disorders: is there a causal relationship?Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders40(12): 1495–1504.
13.
HappéFFrithU (2006) The weak coherence account: detailed-focused cognitive style in autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders36(1): 5–25.
14.
HessJAMatsonJLDixonDR (2010) Psychiatric symptom endorsements in children and adolescents diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders: a comparison to typically developing children and adolescents. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities22: 485–496.
15.
HollingsheadAA (1957) Two factor index of social position. Unpublished manuscript, Yale University, New Haven, CT.
16.
HollocksMJHowlinPPapadopoulosAS. (2014) Differences in HPA-axis and heart rate responsiveness to psychosocial stress in children with autism spectrum disorders with and without co-morbid anxiety. Psychoneuroendocrinology46: 32–45.
17.
HowlinPGoodeSHuttonJ. (2004) Adult outcome for children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry45(2): 212–229.
18.
HurtigTKuusikkoSMattilaML. (2009) Multi-informant reports of psychiatric symptoms among high-functioning adolescents with Asperger syndrome or autism. Autism13(6): 583–598.
19.
JoshiGPettyCWozniakJ. (2010) The heavy burden of psychiatric comorbidity in youth with autism spectrum disorders: a large comparative study of a psychiatrically referred population. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders40(11): 1361–1370.
20.
JuranekJFelipekPABerenjiGR. (2006) Association between amygdale volume and anxiety level: magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) study in autistic children. Journal of Child Neurology21(12): 1051–1058.
21.
KaufmanJBirmaherBBrentD. (1997) Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-aged children – present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry36(7): 980–988.
22.
KleinhansNMRichardsTWeaverK (2010) Association between amygdala response to emotional faces and social anxiety in autism spectrum disorders. Neuropsychologia48(12): 3665–3670.
LainhartJE (1999) Psychiatric problems in individuals with autism, their parents and siblings. International Review of Psychiatry11: 278–298.
25.
LeyferOTFolsteinSEBacalmanS. (2006) Comorbid psychiatric disorders in children with autism: interview development and rates of disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders36(7): 849–861.
26.
LinnetKMDalsgaardSObelC. (2003) Maternal lifestyle factors in pregnancy risk of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder and associated behaviours: review of the current evidence. American Journal of Psychiatry160(6): 1028–1040.
27.
LordCRutterMLeCouteurA (1994) Autism Diagnostic Interview-Revised – a revised version of a diagnostic interview for caregivers of individuals with possible pervasive developmental disorders. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders24(5): 659–685.
28.
LundströmSReichenbergAMelkeJ. (2015) Autism spectrum disorders and coexisting disorders in a nationwide Swedish twin study. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry56(6): 702–710.
29.
MattilaMHurtigTHaapsamoH. (2010) Comorbid psychiatric disorders associated with Asperger syndrome/high-functioning autism: a community and clinic-based study. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders40(9): 1080–1093.
30.
MukaddesNMHergünerSTanidC (2010) Psychiatric disorders in individuals with high-functioning autism and Asperger’s disorder: similarities and differences. The World Journal of Biological Psychiatry11(8): 964–971.
31.
NobleKGHoustonSMNatalieHB. (2014) Family income, parent education and brain structure in children and adolescents. Nature Neuroscience18(5): 773–780.
32.
OrsmondGISeltzerMM (2007) Siblings of individuals with and autism spectrum disorders across the life course. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews13: 313–320.
33.
PetalasMAHastingsRPNashS. (2009) Emotional and behavioural adjustment in siblings of children with intellectual disability with and without autism. Autism13(5): 471–483.
34.
PilowskyTYirmiyaNDoppeltO. (2004) Social and emotional adjustment of siblings of children with autism. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry45(4): 855–865.
35.
ReissF (2013) Socioeconomic inequalities and mental health problems in children and adolescents: a systematic review. Social Science & Medicine90: 24–31.
36.
RommelseNNFrankeBGeurtsHM. (2010) Shared heritability of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder and autism spectrum disorder. European Child and Adolescent Psychiatry19(3): 281–295.
37.
RonaldAHoekstraRA (2011) Autism spectrum disorders and autistic traits: a decade of new twin studies. American Journal of Medical Genetics156(3): 255–274.
38.
RussellGFordTRosenbergR. (2014) The association of attention deficit hyperactivity disorder with socioeconomic disadvantage: alternative explanations and evidence. Journal of Child and Adolescent Psychology and Psychiatry55(5): 436–445.
39.
RutterMBaileyALordC (2003) Social Communication Questionnaire (SCQ). Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
40.
SandinSLichtensteinPKuja-HalkolaR. (2014) The familial risk of autism. The Journal of American Medical Association311(17): 1770–1777.
41.
ScarpaAReyesNM (2011) Improving emotion regulation with CBT in young children with high functioning autism spectrum disorders: a pilot study. Behavioral and Cognitive Psychotherapy39(4): 495–500.
42.
SimonoffEPicklesACharmanT. (2008) Psychiatric disorders in children with autism spectrum disorders: prevalence, comorbidity, and associated factors in a population-derived sample. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry47(8): 921–929.
43.
SteenselFJABögelsSMBruinEI (2013) Psychiatric comorbidity in children with autism spectrum disorders: a comparison with children with ADHD. Journal of Child and Family Studies22(3): 368–376.
44.
ThomasPSahorodnyWPengB. (2012) The association of autism diagnosis with socioeconomic status. Autism16(2): 201–213.
45.
UlloaREOrtizSHigueraF. (2006) Interrater reliability of the Spanish version of the schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children – present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL). Actas Españolas de Psiquiatría34(1): 36–40.
46.
VenablesWNRipleyBD (2002) Modern Applied Statistics with S. 4th ed. New York: Springer.
WechslerD (2010) Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children – Fourth Edition (WISC-IV). Madrid: TEA Ediciones.
49.
WitwerANLecavalierL (2010) Validity of comorbid psychiatric disorders in youngsters with autism spectrum disorders. Journal of Developmental and Physical Disabilities22(4): 367–380.
