Through behavioural analysis, this study investigated the social-motivational aspects of musical interaction between the child and the therapist in improvisational music therapy by measuring emotional, motivational and interpersonal responsiveness in children with autism during joint engagement episodes. The randomized controlled study (n = 10) employed a single subject comparison design in two different conditions, improvisational music therapy and toy play sessions, and DVD analysis of sessions. Improvisational music therapy produced markedly more and longer events of `joy', `emotional synchronicity' and `initiation of engagement' behaviours in the children than toy play sessions. In response to the therapist's interpersonal demands, `compliant (positive) responses' were observed more in music therapy than in toy play sessions, and `no responses' were twice as frequent in toy play sessions as in music therapy. The results of this exploratory study found significant evidence supporting the value of music therapy in promoting social, emotional and motivational development in children with autism.
Adamson, L. & Bakeman, R. (1985) `Affect and Attention: Infants Observed with Mothers and Peers', Child Development56: 582-93.
2.
Alvin, J. and Warwick, A. (1991) Music Therapy for the Autistic Child. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
3.
American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn text rev (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC : APA.
4.
Boddaert, N., Chabane, N., Belin, P., Bourgeois, N., Royer, V., Barthelémy, C., Mouren-Simeoni, M., Phillippe, A., Brunelle, F., Samson, Y. & Zilbovicius, M. (2004) `Perception of Complex Sounds in Autism: Abnormal Auditory Cortical Processing in Children', American Journal of Psychiatry161: 2117-20.
5.
Bono, M., Daley, T. & Sigman, M. (2004) `Relations among Joint Attention, Amount of Intervention and Language Gain in Early Autism', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders34: 495-505.
6.
Bruscia, K.E. (1998) Defining Music Therapy, 2nd edn. Phoenixville: Barcelona .
7.
Cicchetti, D.V. (1994) `Guidelines, Criteria, and Rules of Thumb for Evaluating Normed and Standardized Assessment Instruments in Psychology', Psychological Assessment6 (4): 284-90.
8.
Dawson, G., Hill, D., Spencer, A., Galpert, L. & Watson, L. (1990) `Affective Exchanges between Young Autistic Children and Their Mothers', Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology18: 335-45.
9.
Feldman, R. (2007) `Parent-Infant Synchrony and the Construction of Shared Timing: Physiological Precursors, Developmental Outcomes, and Risk Conditions', Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry48 (3-4): 329-54.
10.
Gold, C., Wigram, T. & Elefant, C. (2006) `Music Therapy for Autistic Spectrum Disorder' . Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews (2), CO004381.
11.
Holck, U. (2007) `An Ethnographic Descriptive Approach to Video Microanalysis', in T. Wosch & T. Wigram (eds) Microanalysis in Music Therapy. Methods, Techniques and Applications for Clinicians, Researchers, Educators and Students, pp. 29-40. London: Jessica Kingsley.
12.
Jackson, C.T., Fein, D., Wolf, J., Jones, G., Hauck, M., Waterhouse, L. & Feinstein, C. (2003) `Responses and Sustained Interactions in Children with Mental Retardation and Autism', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders33 (2): 115-21.
13.
Joseph, R.M. & Tager-Flusberg, H. (1997) `An Investigation of Attention and Affect in Children with Autism and Down Syndrome', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders27 (4): 385-96.
14.
Ju, S.J. (2005) `The Effects of a Social Cognition Promoting Program for Autistic Children'. Unpublished PhD thesis, Seoul National University.
15.
Kasari, C., Sigman, M., Mundy, P. & Yirmiya, N. (1990) `Affective Sharing in the Context of Joint Attention Interaction of Normal, Autistic and Mentally Retarded Children', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders20: 87-100.
16.
Kim, T. (1995) Ewha-Psycho Educational Profile. Seoul: Ewha Women's University Press.
17.
Kim, S. & Kim, Y. (1985) Korean Version of the Vineland Social Maturity Scale. Seoul: JungAngJukSung.
18.
Kim, T. & Park, L. (1995) Korean Version of Childhood Autism Rating Scale . Seoul: Special Education.
19.
Lewy, A.L. & Dawson, G. (1992) `Social Stimulation and Joint Attention in Young Autistic Children', Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology20 (6): 555-66.
20.
Lord, C., Rutter, M., DiLavore, P. & Risi, S. (1999) The ADOS-G (Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule-Generic) . Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
21.
Newson, E. (1984) `The Social Development of the Young Autistic Child' , paper presented at the National Autistic Society Conference, Bath, UK.
22.
Robarts, J.Z. (1996) `Music Therapy for Autistic Children', in C. Trevarthen, K. Aitken, D. Papoudi & J.Z. Robarts (eds) Children with Autism: Diagnosis and Interventions to Meet Their Needs, pp.132-60. London: Jessica Kingsley.
23.
Scambler, D.J., Hepburn, S., Rutherford, M.D., Wehner, E.A. & Rogers, S.J. (2007) `Emotional Responsivity in Children with Autism, Children with Other Developmental Disabilities, and Children with Typical Development', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders37: 553-63.
24.
Shin, M. & Kim, Y. (1998) `Standardization Study for the Korean Version of Childhood Autism Rating Scale: Reliability, Validity and Cut-Off Score', The Korean Journal of Clinical Psychology17 (1): 1-16.
25.
Siller, M. & Sigman, M. (2002) `The Behaviors of Parents of Children with Autism Predict the Subsequent Development of Their Children's Communication', Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders32 (2): 77-89.
26.
Snow, M.E., Hertzig, M.E. & Shapiro, T. (1987) `Expression of Emotion in Young Autistic Children' , Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry26: 836-8.
27.
Stern, D.N. (1985) The Interpersonal World of the Infant: A View from Psychoanalysis and Developmental Psychology. New York: Basic.
28.
Thaut, M.H. (1988) `Measuring Musical Responsiveness in Autistic Children: A Comparative Analysis of Improvised Musical Tone Sequences of Autistic, Normal, and Mentally Retarded Individuals', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders18 (4): 561-71.
29.
Trevarthen, C. & Aitken, K. (2001) `Infant Intersubjectivity: Research, Theory and Clinical Application', Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry42: 3-48.
30.
Trevarthen, C. & Daniel, S. (2005) `Disorganized Rhythm and Synchrony: Early Signs of Autism and Rett Syndrome', Brain & Development27: S25-S34.
31.
Venables, W.N. & Ripley, B.D. (2002) Modern Applied Statistics with S. New York: Springer.
32.
Watson, L.R. (1998) `Following the Child's Lead: Mothers' Interaction with Children with Autism', Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders28 (1): 51-9.
33.
Wigram, T. (2002) `Indications in Music Therapy. Evidence from Assessment That Can Identify the Expectations of Music Therapy as a Treatment for Autistic Spectrum Disorder (ASD): Meeting the Challenge of Evidence Based Practice' , British Journal of Music Therapy16 (1): 11-28.
34.
Wigram, T. & Elefant, C. (2006) `Therapeutic Dialogues in Music: Nurturing Musicality of Communication in Children with Autistic Spectrum Disorder and Rett Syndrome' , in S. Malloch & C. Trevarthern (eds) Communicative Musicality . New York: Oxford University Press .
35.
Wimpory, D.C. & Nash, S. (1999) `Musical Interaction Therapy: Therapeutic Play for Children with Autism', Child Language Teaching and Therapy15 (1): 17-28.
36.
Wimpory, D.C., Hobson, R.P., Williams, J.M. & Nash, S. (2000) `Are Infants with Autism Socially Engaged? A Study of Recent Retrospective Parental Reports', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders30 (6): 525-36.
37.
Wimpory, D.C., Hobson, P.R. & Nash, S. (2007) `What Facilitates Social Engagement in Preschool Children with Autism?', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders37 (3): 564-73.
