Deficits in attention, communication, imitation, and play skills reduce opportunities for children with autism to learn from natural interactive experiences that occur throughout the day. These developmental delays are already present by the time these children reach the toddler period. The current study provided a brief 12 week, 1 hour per week, individualized parent—child education program to eight toddlers newly diagnosed with autism. Parents learned to implement naturalistic therapeutic techniques from the Early Start Denver Model, which fuses developmental- and relationship-based approaches with Applied Behavior Analysis into their ongoing family routines and parent—child play activities. Results demonstrated that parents acquired the strategies by the fifth to sixth hour and children demonstrated sustained change and growth in social communication behaviors. Findings are discussed in relation to providing parents with the necessary tools to engage, communicate with, and teach their young children with autism beginning immediately after the diagnosis.
American Psychiatric Association (2000) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 4th edn text rev. (DSM-IV-TR). Washington, DC: APA.
2.
Anderson, S.R. & Romanczyk, R.G. (1999) `Early Intervention for Young Children with Autism: Continuum-Based Behavioral Models', Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps24: 162-73.
3.
Baker-Ericzén, M.J., Stahmer, A.C. & Burns, A. (2007) `Child Demographics Associated with Outcomes in a Community-Based Pivotal Response Training Program', Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions9: 52-60.
4.
Baxter, C. (1986) `Intellectual Disability: Parental Perceptions and Stigma as Stress', unpublished doctoral dissertation, Monash University, Victoria, Australia.
5.
Brookman-Frazee, L. (2004) `Using Parent/Clinician Partnerships in Parent Education Programs for Children with Autism', Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions6: 195-213.
6.
Burton, D. (2002) `The Autism Epidemic: Is the NIH and CDC Adequate?' , opening statement at the 18 April 2002 hearing of the Committee on Government Reform, Washington, DC.
Chumpelik, D. (1984) `The PROMPT System of Therapy: Theoretical Framework and Applications for Developmental Apraxia of Speech', Seminars in Speech and Language5: 139-56.
9.
Dunlap, G. & Koegel, R.L. (1980) `Motivating Autistic Children through Stimulus Variation', Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis13: 619-27.
10.
Fombonne, E. (1998) `Epidemiological Surveys of Autism', in F.R. Volkmar (ed.) Autism and Pervasive Developmental Disorders, pp. 32-63. New York: Cambridge University Press.
11.
Fombonne, E. (2003) `Epidemiological Surveys of Autism and other Pervasive Developmental Disorders: An Update', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders33: 365-82.
12.
Gillberg, C., Steffenburg, S. & Schaumann, H. (1991) `Is Autism More Common Now than Ten Years Ago?' , British Journal of Psychiatry158: 403-9.
13.
Green, G., Brennan, L.C. & Fein, D. (2002) `Intensive Behavioral Treatment for a Toddler at High Risk for Autism', Behavior Modification26: 69-103.
14.
Ingersoll, B. & Gergans, S. (in press)`The Effect of a Parent-Implemented Imitation Intervention on Spontaneous Imitation Skills in Young Children with Autism', Research in Developmental Disabilities.
15.
Koegel, L.K., Koegel, R.L., Harrower, J.K. & Carter, C.M. (1999a) `Pivotal Response Intervention. I. Overview of Approach', Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps24: 174-85.
16.
Koegel, L.K., Koegel, R.L., Shoshan, Y. & Mcnerney, E. (1999b) `Pivotal Response Intervention. II. Preliminary Long-Term Outcome Data', Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps24: 186-98.
17.
Koegel, R.L. & Williams, J.A. (1980)`Direct vs. Indirect Response-Reinforcer Relationships in Teaching Autistic Children', Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology8: 537-47.
18.
Koegel, R.L., Schreibman, L., Britten, K.R., Burke, J.C. & O'Neill, R.E. (1982) `A Comparison of Parent Training to Direct Child Treatment', in R. L. Koegel, A. Rincover, & A.L. E Ge L (eds) Educating and Understanding Autistic Children. pp. 260-79. San Diego, CA: College Hill Press.
19.
Koegel, R.L., Dyer, K. & Bell, L.K. (1987a) `The Influence of Child-Preferred Activities on Autistic Children's Social Behavior', Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis20: 243-52.
20.
Koegel, R.L., O'Dell, M.C. & Koegel, L.K. (1987b) `A Natural Language Teaching Paradigm for Nonverbal Autistic Children', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders17: 187-99.
21.
Koegel, R.L., O'Dell, M.C. & Dunlap, G. (1988) `Producing Speech Use in Nonverbal Autistic Children by Reinforcing Attempts', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders18: 525-38.
22.
Koegel, R.L., Koegel, L.K. & Surratt, A.V. (1992) `Language Intervention and Disruptive Behavior in Preschool Children with Autism', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders22: 141-53.
23.
Koegel, R.L., Bimbela, A. & Schreibman, L. (1996) `Collateral Effects of Parent Training on Family Interactions', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders26: 347-59.
24.
Krantz, P.J., Macduff, M.T. & Mcclannahan, L.E. (1993) `Programming Participation in Family Activities for Children with Autism: Parents' Use of Photographic Activity Schedules', Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis26: 137-8.
25.
Laski, K.E., Charlop, M.H. & Schreibman, L. (1988) `Training Parents to Use the Natural Language Paradigm to Increase Their Autistic Children's Speech' , Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis21: 391-400.
26.
Lord, C., Rutter, M., Dilavore, P.C. & Risi, S. (1999) The Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule: The Manual. Los Angeles, CA: Western Psychological Services.
27.
Lord, C., Wagner, A., Rogers, S., Szatmari, P., Aman, M., Charman, T., ET AL. (2005) `Challenges in Evaluating Psychosocial Interventions for Autistic Spectrum Disorders', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders35: 695-708.
28.
Lutzker, J.R. & Steed, S.E. (1998) `Parent Training for Families of Children with Developmental Disabilities', in J. M. Briesmeister & C.E. Schaefer (eds) Handbook of Parent Training: Parents as Co-Therapists for Children's Behavior Problems, 2nd edn, pp. 281-307. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.
29.
Lutzker, J.R., Huynen, K.B. & Bigelow, K.M. (1998) `Parent Training', in V.B. Van Hasselt & M. Hersen (eds) Handbook of Psychological Treatment Protocols for Children and Adolescents, pp. 467-500. Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum .
30.
Mahoney, G. & Perales, F. (2003) `Using Relationship-Focused Intervention to Enhance the Social-Emotional Functioning of Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders' , Topics in Early Childhood Special Education23: 77-89.
31.
Mahoney, G. & Perales, F. (2005) `The Impact of Relationship Focused Intervention on Young Children with Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Comparative Study', Journal of Development and Behavioral Pediatrics26: 77-85.
32.
Mahoney, G. & Wheeden, C.A. (1998) `Effects of Teacher Style on the Engagement of Preschool Aged Children with Special Learning Needs', Journal of Developmental and Learning Disorders2: 293-315.
33.
Mahoney, G., Boyce, G., Fewell, P., Spiker, D. & Wheeden, C.A. (1998) `The Relationship of Parent-Child Interaction to the Effectiveness of Early Intervention Services for At-Risk Children and Children with Disabilities', Topics in Early Childhood Special Education18: 5-17.
34.
Mcgee, G.G., Morrier, M.J. & Daly, T. (1999) `An Incidental Teaching Approach to Early Intervention for Toddlers with Autism', Journal of The Association for Persons with Severe Handicaps24: 133-46.
35.
Moes, D., Koegel, R.L., Schreibman, L. & Loos, L.M. (1992) `Stress Profiles for Mothers and Fathers of Children with Autism', Psychological Reports71: 1272-4.
36.
Mullen, E.M. (1995) Mullen Scales of Early Learning (AGS Edition). Circle Pines, MN: American Guidance Service .
37.
National Research Council (2001) Educating Children with Autism. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.
38.
Ozonoff, S. & Cathcart, K. (1998) `Effectiveness of a Home Program Intervention for Young Children with Autism', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders28: 25-32.
39.
Rogers, S.J. (2000) `Differential Diagnosis of Autism before Age 3' , International Review of Research in Mental Retardation23: 1-31.
40.
Rogers, S.J. & Lewis, H. (1989) `An Effective Day Treatment Model for Young Children with Pervasive Developmental Disorders', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry28: 207-14.
41.
Rogers, S.J., Herbison, J., Lewis, H., Pantone, J. & Reis, K. (1986) `An Approach for Enhancing the Symbolic, Communicative, and Interpersonal Functioning of Young Children with Autism and Severe Emotional Handicaps', Journal of theDivision of Early Childhood 10: 135-48.
42.
Rogers, S.J., Hall, T., Osaki, D., Reaven, J. & Herbison, J. (2000) `A Comprehensive, Integrated, Educational Approach to Young Children with Autism and Their Families', in S . L . H A R R I S & J . S . H A N D L E M A N (eds) Preschool Education Programs for Children with Autism, pp. 95-134. Austin, TX: Pro-Ed .
43.
Rogers, S.J., Hayden, D., Hepburn, S., Charlifue-Smith, R., Hall, T. & Hayes, A. (2006) `Teaching Young Nonverbal Children with Autism Useful Speech: A Pilot Study of the Denver Model and PROMPT Interventions' , Journal of Autism & Developmental Disorders36: 1007-24.
44.
Rogers, S.J. & Lewis, H. (1989) `An Effective Day Treatment Model for Young Children with Pervasive Developmental Disorders', Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry28: 207-214.
45.
Rogers, S.J., Vismara, L.A. & Colombi, C. (in preparation) The Early Start Denver Model Parent Manual. Davis: University of California.
46.
Rogers, S.J., Dawson, G., Smith, C.M., Winter, J.M. & Donaldson, A.L. (in press) Early Start Denver Model Intervention for Young Children with Autism Manual. Seattle: University of Washington.
47.
Scarborough, A.A., Spiker, D., Mallik, S., Hebbeler, K.M., Bailey, D.B. JR & Simeonsson, R.J. (2004) `A National Look at Children and Families Entering Early Intervention', Exceptional Children70: 469-83.
48.
Smith, T., Scahill, L., Dawson, G., Guthrie, D., Lord, C., Odom, S., ET AL. (2007) `Designing Research Studies on Psychosocial Interventions in Autism', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders37: 354-66.
Stahmer, A.C. (1995) `Teaching Symbolic Play Skills to Children with Autism Using Pivotal Response Training', Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders25: 123-41.
51.
Stahmer, A.C. & Gist, K. (2001)`The Effects of an Accelerated Parent Education Program on Technique Mastery and Child Outcome', Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions3: 75-82.
52.
Stahmer, A.C. & Schreibman, L. (1992) `Teaching Children with Autism Appropriate Play in Unsupervised Environments Using a Self-Management Treatment Package', Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis25: 447-59.
53.
Symo N., J.B. (2005) `Expanding Interventions for Children with Autism: Parents as Trainers', Journal of Positive Behavior Interventions7: 159-73.
54.
Uzgiris, I . C . & Hunt, J.M. . (1975) Assessment in Infancy: Ordinal Scales of Psychological Development. Champaign: University of Illinois Press.
55.
Watson, P.J. & Workman, E.A. (1981)`The Non-Concurrent Multiple Baseline Across-Individuals Design: An Extension of the Traditional Multiple Baseline Design', Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry12: 257-9.
56.
Williams, J.A., Koegel, R.L. & Egel, A.L. (1981) `Response-Reinforcer Relationships and Improved Learning in Autistic Children', Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis14: 53-60.
57.
Yeargin-Allsopp, M., Rice, C., Karapurkar, T., Doernberg, T., Boyle, C. & Murphy, C. (2003) `Prevalence of Autism in a US Metropolitan Area' , Journal of the American Medical Association289: 49-55.
58.
Yoder, P. & Stone, W.L. (2006) `Randomized Comparison of Two Communication Interventions for Preschoolers with Autism Spectrum Disorders', Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology74: 426-35.
