Flow in language learning: A systematic review of methodological features

Abstract

Although Csikszentmihalyi’s concept of flow was introduced 50 years ago, it was not until 2003 when Egbert established a research stream exploring flow in language learning. Since then, empirical studies have increasingly used the construct to gain a better understanding of learners’ optimal experiences. To understand the methodological characteristics of research during this period, we conducted a systematic review of 123 empirical studies on flow in second language (L2) learning published between 2003 and 2025. These studies were coded for sampling features, learner demographics, research methods, research foci, and operationalization features of flow. The findings revealed that research on flow has rapidly grown, especially since 2016, with studies skewed towards samples involving Asian English as a foreign language (EFL) participants in computer-mediated instructional contexts. The results also showed that research most commonly operationalizes flow as a continuous construct (as opposed to a categorical construct) with prominent dimensions of ‘focus/concentration’, ‘control’, ‘challenge–skills balance’, ‘interest’, and ‘time distortion’. The majority of research aimed to examine the impact of task features/context on flow or the relationship between flow and individual differences. Fewer studies examined changes in flow over time or connected flow to language learning outcomes. Furthermore, flow tended to be measured with componential, Likert-type scales, with a minority of studies adopting qualitative self-report or observable measures. Based on these findings and comparisons with flow research across other disciplines, we offer pedagogical suggestions for promoting flow in L2 classrooms and recommendations for undertaking future research on flow in the language learning domain.