The structural relationships among L2 motivation,out-of-class informal learning,and oral proficiency: A multiple-group structural equation modeling study
Restricted accessResearch articleFirst published online March, 2026
The structural relationships among L2 motivation,out-of-class informal learning,and oral proficiency: A multiple-group structural equation modeling study
Second language (L2) motivation is the driving force behind L2 learning. It is of great pedagogical significance to explore how motivation factors, directly and indirectly, impact L2 oral proficiency. Based on data for all L2 learners as a composite group, Lin proposed and verified a conceptual model revealing the structural relations among L2 motivation factors (i.e. L2 interest, and perceived importance of speaking), behavioral variable (i.e. out-of-class L2 contact), and L2 oral proficiency. However, since gender differences and other learner subgroup differences in L2 motivation have been found by previous research, it is imperative to test whether this model is applicable across various learner subgroups. Based upon a dataset of 631 college students taking Chinese, French, Russian, and Spanish language classes in the United States, this study used multiple-group structural equation modeling (MG-SEM) to test the applicability of the model for L2 learners of diverse backgrounds. Key findings suggest adequacy of the model across the following subgroups: females vs. males; learners with vs. without at least two years of high school target language learning experience; and learners of commonly taught languages (i.e. Spanish and French) vs. less commonly taught languages (i.e. Chinese and Russian). However, pronounced differences in the applicability of the model are evident in comparisons of heritage and non-heritage language learners. There are significant differences in the relationships between L2 interest, perceived importance of speaking, and L2 oral proficiency, which are stronger for non-heritage learners. More research efforts are needed to fully understand the uniqueness of heritage learners’ motivation constructs and motivation process.
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