Teachers’ proactive and reactive classroom management strategies are a significant component of teaching effectiveness. Teachers need to develop such strategies to structure a positive classroom environment. In addition, teachers’ self-efficacy beliefs concerning their classroom management strategies are equally significant. This research aimed to identify the teachers’ effective proactive and reactive classroom management strategies. It also sought to investigate the obstacles that inhibit proactive classroom management use and identify the association between teachers’ self-efficacy and classroom management practices. The research adopted a mixed-methods paradigm, consisting of two tools: a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews. The sampling included 80 Saudi teachers of English as a foreign language (EFL) participated in the survey and eight teachers participated in the interviews. The results showed that EFL teachers find proactive classroom management strategies more effective than reactive strategies. In addition, there was a difference between novice and experienced teachers’ effective classroom management strategies, in which experienced teachers found proactive strategies more effective. The findings also indicated that there are four types of obstacles that hinder proactive classroom management strategies. System-related obstacles (subject-centered curriculum and institutional rules), system/teacher related obstacles (institutional rules and teachers’ predispositions concerning e-tools), teacher-related obstacles (lack of understanding of the discipline plan), and student-related obstacles (unmotivated students). The final finding cited the positive association between teachers’ high self-efficacy and proactive classroom management application.
AchurraC.VillardónL. (2013). Teacher’ self-efficacy and student learning. The European Journal of Social & Behavioral Sciences, 2, 366–383.
2.
AhmedM.U.HussainS.FaridS. (2018). Factors influencing the adoption of e-learning in an open and distance learning institution of Pakistan. Electronic Journal of e-Learning, 16, 148–158.
3.
AlbertoP.TroutmanA.C.AxeJ.B. (2013). Applied behavior analysis for teachers. Pearson.
4.
AlfieriL.BrooksP.J.AldrichN.J.TenenbaumH.R. (2011). Does discovery-based instruction enhance learning?Journal of Educational Psychology, 103, 1–18.
5.
AloeA.M.AmoL.C.ShanahanM.E. (2014). Classroom management self-efficacy and burnout: A multivariate meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 26, 101–126.
6.
Al-SalehN.A. (2018). The impact of positive and corrective feedback via Showbie on Saudi students’ English writing. Master’s thesis, Al Imam Muhammad ibn Saud Islamic University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Arab World English Journal. Thesis ID 215, pp. 1–121. Available at: http://doi.org/10.24093/awej/th.215 (accessed September 2021).
7.
AltmanK.LintonT. (1971). Operant conditioning in the classroom setting: A review of the research. The Journal of Educational Research, 64, 277–286.
8.
ArslanA.KarameseE.N. (2018). The effects of prospective teacher-lecturer: Rapport on prospective teachers’ attitudes and self-efficacy beliefs towards teaching profession. International Journal of Psycho-Educational Sciences, 7, 42–51.
9.
AshtonP.T.WebbR.B. (1986). Making a difference: Teachers’ sense of efficacy and student achievement. Longman.
10.
BanduraA. (1977). Self-efficacy: toward a unifying theory of behavioral change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.
11.
BassettJ.ClevelandA.AcornD.NixM.SnyderT. (2017). Are they paying attention? Students’ lack of motivation and attention potentially threaten the utility of course evaluations. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 42, 431–442.
12.
BayraktarH.V.DoganM.C. (2017). Investigation of primary school teachers’ perception of discipline types they use for classroom management. Higher Education Studies, 7, 30–45.
13.
Beaty-O’FerrallM.E.GreenA.HannaF. (2010). Classroom management strategies for difficult students: Promoting change through relationships. Middle School Journal, 41, 4–11.
14.
BitchenerJ. (2017). Why some L2 learners fail to benefit from written corrective feedback. In NassajiH.KartchavaE. (Eds.), Corrective feedback in second language teaching and learning (pp. 129–140). Routledge.
15.
BlandfordS. (2003). Managing discipline in schools. Routledge.
16.
BlazarD.KraftM.A. (2017). Teacher and teaching effects on students’ attitudes and behaviors. Educational Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 39, 146–170.
17.
BoldenE.C.OestreichT.M.KenneyM.J.YuhnkeB.T. (2019). Location, location, location: A comparison of student experience in a lecture hall to a small classroom using similar techniques. Active Learning in Higher Education, 20, 139–152.
18.
BrayW.S. (2011). A collective case study of the influence of teachers’ beliefs and knowledge on error-handling practices during class discussion of mathematics. Journal for Research in Mathematics Education, 42, 2–38.
19.
BrooksK.N.FfolliottP.F.MagnerJ.A. (2012). Hydrology and the management of watersheds. John Wiley.
20.
BullockD. (2011). Learner self-assessment: An investigation into teachers’ beliefs. ELT Journal, 65, 114–125.
21.
ByrneK.C. (2017). Teacher self-efficacy in classroom management amongst novice middle school teachers. Unpublished doctoral thesis, Concordia University, Portland, OR, USA.
ChaoC.N.G.ChowW.S.E.ForlinC.HoF.C. (2017). Improving teachers’ self-efficacy in applying teaching and learning strategies and classroom management to students with special education needs in Hong Kong. Teaching and Teacher Education, 66, 360–369.
24.
ClarizioH.F.YelonS.L. (1967). Learning theory approaches to classroom management: rationale and intervention techniques. The Journal of Special Education, 1, 267–274.
25.
Clarke-StewartK.A.LeeY.AllhusenV.D.KimM.S.McDowellD.J. (2006). Observed differences between early childhood programs in the US and Korea: Reflections of ‘developmentally appropriate practices’ in two cultural contexts. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 27, 427–443.
26.
ÇobanA. (2015). Teachers’ reactions towards misbehavior in the classroom. Egitim ve Bilim, 40. Available at: http://doi.org/10.15390/EB.2015.4520 (accessed September 2021).
27.
CohenL.ManionL.MorrisonK. (2007). Research methods in education. 6th edition.Routledge.
28.
CohenJ.McCabeL.MichelliN.M.PickeralT. (2009). School climate: Research, policy, practice, and teacher education. Teachers College Record, 111, 180–213.
29.
ContehB.G. (2020). Using digital technologies to enhance first-year students’ learning in a communication and academic literacy skills course at the University of Botswana. University of British Columbia.
30.
DavisJ.R. (2018). Classroom management in teacher education programs. Springer.
31.
DebsL.MillerK.D.AshbyI.ExterM. (2019). Students’ perspectives on different teaching methods: Comparing innovative and traditional courses in a technology program. Research in Science & Technological Education, 37, 297–323.
32.
DellatolaE.DaradoumisT.DimitriadisY. (2020). Exploring students’ engagement within a collaborative inquiry-based language learning activity in a blended environment. In YuS.AllyM.TsinakosA. (Eds.), Emerging technologies and pedagogies in the curriculum (pp. 355–375): Springer.
33.
DeLongM.WinterD. (2001). An objective approach to student-centered instruction. PRIMUS, 11, 27–52.
34.
Di̇şlenG.VeÖ.L.N.İfadeleri̇Ö.N.Moti̇vasyonI.L.SosyalA. (2013). The reasons of lack of motivation from the students’ and teachers’ voices. Journal of Academic Social Sciences, 1, 35–45.
35.
EgbertJ. (2004). A study of flow theory in the foreign language classroom. Canadian Modern Language Review, 60, 549–586.
36.
EvertsonC.M.WeinsteinC.S. (2013). Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues. Routledge.
37.
FalcioneS.CampbellE.McCollumB., et al. (2019). Emergence of different perspectives of success in collaborative learning. The Canadian Journal for the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 10(2).
38.
FivesH.G.M.Gill (Eds.). (2015). International handbook of research on teachers’ beliefs. Routledge.
39.
FoxR. (2001). Constructivism examined. Oxford Review of Education, 27, 23–35.
40.
GaiasL.M.JohnsonS.L.BottianiJ.H.DebnamK.J.BradshawC.P. (2019). Examining teachers’ classroom management profiles: Incorporating a focus on culturally responsive practice. Journal of School Psychology, 76, 124–139.
41.
GarrettT. (2014). Effective classroom management: The essentials. Teachers College Press.
42.
GlasserW. (1999). Choice theory: A new psychology of personal freedom. Harper Perennial.
43.
GlockS.KleenH. (2019). Teachers’ responses to student misbehavior: The role of expertise. Teaching Education, 30, 52–68.
44.
GordonT.BurchN. (2003). Teacher effectiveness training: The program proven to help teachers bring out the best in students of all ages: Three Rivers Press (CA).
45.
GordonD.G. (2001). Classroom management problems and solutions: A few basic guidelines for classroom management can improve student behavior and reduce stress on the music educator. Music Educators Journal, 88, 17–23.
46.
GurcayD.GulbasE. (2015). Development of three-tier heat, temperature and internal energy diagnostic test. Research in Science & Technological Education, 33, 197–217.
47.
GuskeyT.R.PassaroP.D. (1994). Teacher efficacy: A study of construct dimensions. American Educational Research Journal, 31, 627–643.
48.
HartR. (2010). Classroom behaviour management: educational psychologists’ views on effective practice. Emotional and Behavioural Difficulties, 15, 353–371.
49.
HernándezM.D.R.G. (2018). A case study on foreign language teachers’ beliefs about classroom management in a large public university in Central Mexico. Masters thesis, Universidad de Guanajuato, Mexico. Available at: http://repositorio.ugto.mx/handle/20.500.12059/362 (accessed September 2021).
50.
HocklyN. (2013). Mobile learning. ELT Journal, 67, 80–84.
51.
İnceçayG.DollarY.K. (2012). Classroom management, self-efficacy and readiness of Turkish pre-service English teachers. ELT Research Journal, 1, 189–198.
52.
JoeH.K.HiverP.Al-HoorieA.H. (2017). Classroom social climate, self-determined motivation, willingness to communicate, and achievement: A study of structural relationships in instructed second language settings. Learning and Individual Differences, 53, 133–144.
53.
JohnsonD.W.JohnsonR.T. (1999). Making cooperative learning work. Theory Into Practice, 38, 67–73.
54.
JonesV.F.JonesL.S. (1981). Responsible classroom discipline: Creating positive learning environments and solving problems. Allyn and Bacon.
55.
JunqueiraL.KimY. (2013). Exploring the relationship between training, beliefs, and teachers’ corrective feedback practices: A case study of a novice and an experienced ESL teacher. Canadian Modern Language Review, 69, 181–206.
56.
KartchavaE.GatbontonE.AmmarA.TrofimovichP. (2018). Oral corrective feedback: Pre-service English as a second language teachers’ beliefs and practices. Language Teaching Research, 24, 220–249.
57.
KimH.J.PedersonS.BaldwinM. (2012). Improving user satisfaction via a case-enhanced e-learning environment. Education and Training, 54, 204–218.
58.
KoutroubaK.MarkarianD.-A.SardianouE. (2018). Classroom management style: Greek teachers’ perceptions. International Journal of Instruction, 11, 641–656.
59.
KulinnaP.H.CothranD.J.RegualosR. (2006). Teachers’ reports of student misbehavior in physical education. Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport, 77, 32–40.
60.
LaalM.LaalM. (2012). Collaborative learning: what is it?Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, 31, 491–495.
61.
LandrumT.KauffmanJ. (2006). Behavioral approaches to classroom management. In EvertsonC.M.WeinsteinC.S. (Eds.), Handbook of classroom management: Research, practice, and contemporary issues (pp. 47–68). Routledge.
62.
LippkeS. (2017). Self-efficacy theory. In Zeigler-HillV.ShackelfordT.K. (Eds.), Encyclopedia of personality and individual differences (pp. 1–6). Springer International.
63.
LiuS.-H. (2011). Factors related to pedagogical beliefs of teachers and technology integration. Computers & Education, 56, 1012–1022.
64.
MaK.CavanaghM.S. (2018). Classroom ready? Pre-service teachers’ self-efficacy for their first professional experience placement. Australian Journal of Teacher Education, 43(7).
65.
MaagJ.W. (2001). Rewarded by punishment: Reflections on the disuse of positive reinforcement in schools. Exceptional Children, 67, 173–186.
66.
MaengJ.L.BellR.L. (2015). Differentiating science instruction: Secondary science teachers’ practices. International Journal of Science Education, 37, 2065–2090.
67.
MerrillM.D. (2002). First principles of instruction. Educational Technology Research and Development, 50, 43–59.
68.
MartellC.C. (2013). Race and histories: Examining culturally relevant teaching in the U.S. history classroom. Theory & Research in Social Education, 41, 65–88.
69.
MartinN.K.BaldwinB. (1993). Validation of an inventory of classroom management style: Differences between novice and experienced teachers. ERIC Report ED359240. Available at: https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED359240 (accessed September 2021).
70.
MartinN.K.SassD.A. (2010). Construct validation of the behavior and instructional management scale. Teaching and Teacher Education, 26, 1124–1135.
71.
MartinN.K.YinZ. (1997). Attitudes and beliefs regarding classroom management style: Differences between male and female teachers. Paper presented at 20th Annual Meeting of the Southwest Educational Research Association, Austin, TX, USA.
72.
MohammadiF.AbrizahA.NazariM.AttaranM. (2015). What motivates high school teachers to use web-based learning resources for classroom instruction? An exploratory case study in an Iranian smart school. Computers in Human Behavior, 51, 373–381.
73.
MonroeA.E.BlackwellS.E.PepperS.K. (2010). Strengthening professional development partnerships while bridging classroom management instruction and practice. Professional Educator, 34, 1–9.
74.
MooreJ.L.Dickson-DeaneC.GalyenK. (2011). e-Learning, online learning, and distance learning environments: Are they the same?The Internet and Higher Education, 14, 129–135.
75.
MouzaC. (2009). Does research-based professional development make a difference? A longitudinal investigation of teacher learning in technology integration. Teachers College Record, 111, 1195–1241.
76.
NagelD. (2018). Teaching with technology: In our third-annual ed tech survey, teachers reveal an overwhelmingly positive attitude toward tech in the classroom and its impact on teaching, learning and professional development. THE Journal (Technological Horizons In Education), 45, 1–8.
77.
NoureenG. (2013). Effect of descriptive feedback and corrective feedback on academic achievement of VII graders in mathematics. Pakistan Journal of Education, 30(2), 1–13.
78.
Ogan-BekirogluF.AkkocH. (2009). Pre-service teachers’ instructional beliefs and examination of consistency between beliefs and practices. International Journal of Science and Mathematics Education, 7, 1173–1199.
79.
OlafsonL.SchrawG. (2006). Teachers’ beliefs and practices within and across domains. International Journal of Educational Research, 45, 71–84.
80.
PattersonT.T.FarmerA. (2018). Original paper classroom management self-efficacy of pre-service teachers. World, 5(2).
81.
PutmanS.M. (2009). Grappling with classroom management: The orientations of preservice teachers and impact of student teaching. The Teacher Educator, 44, 232–247.
82.
QiuW.XieX.Y.QiuJ., et al. (2018). High-performance artificial nitrogen fixation at ambient conditions using a metal-free electrocatalyst. Nature Communications, 9, 3485.
83.
RaphaelL.M.PressleyM.MohanL. (2008). Engaging instruction in middle school classrooms: An observational study of nine teachers. The Elementary School Journal, 109, 61–81.
84.
RetnowatiE.AyresP.SwellerJ. (2017). Can collaborative learning improve the effectiveness of worked examples in learning mathematics?Journal of Educational Psychology, 109, 666–679.
85.
RichmondA.S.SlatteryJ.M.MitchellN.MorganR.K.BecknellJ. (2016). Can a learner-centered syllabus change students’ perceptions of student–professor rapport and master teacher behaviors?Scholarship of Teaching and Learning in Psychology, 2, 159–168.
86.
RissanenA. (2018). Student engagement in large classroom: The effect on grades, attendance and student experiences in an undergraduate biology course. Canadian Journal of Science, Mathematics and Technology Education, 18, 136–153.
87.
RodgersC.R. (2006). Attending to student voice: The impact of descriptive feedback on learning and teaching. Curriculum Inquiry, 36, 209–237.
88.
RogersB. (2011). You know the fair rule: Strategies for positive and effective behaviour management and discipline in schools. Australian Council for Educational Research.
89.
SassD.A.LopesJ.OliveiraC.MartinN.K. (2016). An evaluation of the behavior and instructional management scale’s psychometric properties using Portuguese teachers. Teaching and Teacher Education, 55, 279–290.
90.
SatoM.LoewenS. (2018). Metacognitive instruction enhances the effectiveness of corrective feedback: Variable effects of feedback types and linguistic targets. Language Learning, 68, 507–545.
91.
SavasciF.BerlinD.F. (2012). Science teacher beliefs and classroom practice related to constructivism in different school settings. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 23, 65–86.
92.
SawangS.O’ConnorP.J.AliM. (2017). Engage: Using technology to enhance students’ engagement in a large classroom. Journal of Learning Design, 10, 11–19.
93.
SkinnerB.F. (1938). Behavior of organisms. Appleton-Century-Crofts.
94.
SoH.-J.BrushT.A. (2008). Student perceptions of collaborative learning, social presence and satisfaction in a blended learning environment: Relationships and critical factors. Computers & Education, 51, 318–336.
95.
SohL.-K.KhandakerN.JiangH. (2008). I-MINDS: A multiagent system for intelligent computer-supported collaborative learning and classroom management. International Journal of Artificial Intelligence in Education, 18, 119–151.
96.
SuryasaW.PrayogaI.WerdistiraI. (2017). An analysis of students motivation toward English learning as second language among students in Pritchard English academy (PEACE). International Journal of Social Sciences and Humanities, 1, 43–50.
97.
TeagueG.M.AnfaraV.A.WilsonN.L.GainesC.B.BeaversJ.L. (2012). Instructional practices in the middle grades: A mixed methods case study. NASSP Bulletin, 96, 203–227.
98.
ThumasE.MagilvyJ. (2011). Qualitative rigor or research validity in qualitative research. Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 16, 151–155.
99.
Tschannen-MoranM.BarrM. (2004). Fostering student learning: The relationship of collective teacher efficacy and student achievement. Leadership and Policy in Schools, 3, 189–209.
100.
Tschannen-MoranM.MacFarlaneB. (2011). I know I can!: Teacher self-efficacy in the English language arts classroom. In LappD.FisherD. (Eds.), Handbook of research on teaching the English language arts (pp. 230–235): Routledge.
101.
Tschannen-MoranM.Woolfolk HoyA. (2001). Teacher efficacy: Capturing and elusive construct. Teaching and Teacher Education, 17, 783–805.
102.
Tschannen-MoranM.Woolfolk HoyA.HoyW.K. (1998). Teacher efficacy: Its meaning and measure. Review of Educational Research, 68, 202–248.
103.
TurnerJ.C.WarzonK.B.ChristensenA. (2011). Motivating mathematics learning: Changes in teachers’ practices and beliefs during a nine-month collaboration. American Educational Research Journal, 48, 718–762.
104.
UzuntiryakiE.BozY.KirbulutD.BektasO. (2010). Do pre-service chemistry teachers reflect their beliefs about constructivism in their teaching practices?Research in Science Education, 40, 403–424.
105.
Van den BergY.H.CillessenA.H. (2015). Peer status and classroom seating arrangements: A social relations analysis. Journal of Experimental Child Psychology, 130, 19–34.
106.
VeramuthuP.ShahP.M. (2020). Effectiveness of collaborative writing among secondary school students in an ESL classroom. Creative Education, 11, 54–67.
107.
WalkerJ.E.SheaT.M.BauerA.M. (2007). Behavior management: A practical approach for educators. 9th edition.Pearson.
108.
WebbN.BarrettL.O. (2014). Student views of instructor-student rapport in the college classroom. Journal of the Scholarship of Teaching and Learning, 14, 15–28.
109.
WildenS. (2017). Mobile learning. Oxford University Press.
110.
Winter. (1992). Rethinking nationalism and sovereignty. Journal of International Affairs, 45(2).
111.
WongH.WongR.RogersK.BrooksA. (2012). Managing your classroom for success. Science and Children, 49, 60–64.
112.
WoodsP.JeffreyB.TromanG.BoyleM. (2019). Restructuring schools, reconstructing teachers: Responding to change in the primary school. Routledge.
113.
WubbelsT. (2011). An international perspective on classroom management: What should prospective teachers learn?Teaching Education, 22, 113–131.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
