The increasing popularity of the telephone interview as a research method may be a reflection of broader social change and technological advances, with increased use and acceptability of telecommunications to support healthcare and service industries in general. Despite its widespread use there are few definitions of the term. Studies which directly compare telephone and face-to-face interviewing tend to conclude that telephone interviewing produces data which are at least comparable in quality to those attained by the face-to-face method. While it has been used for large survey studies, in nursing research the telephone interview is used predominantly in smaller-scale qualitative studies, where contact has already been made with the participants. The telephone interview was used in a study by one of the authors (EC) which explored the experience of postoperative pain. Issues relating to ethical considerations, reliability, validity, limitations and analysis are explored. The use of the approach for pain research is reflected upon before considering the wider applications that are available for this method of data collection in healthcare practice.
Aktan, G.B. , Calkins, R.F. , Ribisl, K.M.et al. (1997) Test-retest reliability of psychoactive substance abuse and dependence diagnoses in telephone interviews using a modified diagnostic interview schedule . The American Journal of Drug and Alcohol Abuse23: 2, 229-249 .
2.
Barriball, K. L. , While, A.E. (1994) Collecting data using a semi-structured interview: a discussion paper . Journal of Advanced Nursing19: 2, 328-335 .
3.
Barriball, K.L. , Christian, S.L. , While A.E.et al. (1996) The telephone survey method: A discussion paper . Journal of Advanced Nursing24: 1, 115-121 .
4.
Bergen, A. (1994) Evaluating nursing care of the terminally ill in the community: a case study approach . International Journal of Nursing Studies29: 1, 81-94 .
5.
Betteridge, J. (1997) Answering back: The telephone, modernity and everyday life . Media, Culture and Society19: 585-603 .
6.
Burnard, P. (1994) The telephone interview as a data collection method . Nurse Education Today14: 1, 67-72 .
7.
Carr, E.C.J. (1999) Talking on the telephone — audit or research?Journal of Advanced Nursing29: 1, 194-200 .
8.
Carr, E.C.J. , Thomas, V.J. (1997) Anticipating and experiencing post-operative pain: the patients' perspective . Journal of Clinical Nursing6: 3, 191-201 .
9.
Cleary, P.D. , Edgman-Levitan, S. , Roberts, M. , et al. (1991) Patients evaluate their hospital care . Health AffairsWinter 10: 254-267 .
10.
Cleeland, C. , Ryan, K.M. , (1994) Pain assessment: global use of the Brief Pain Inventory . Annals Academy of Medicine23: 2, 129-138 .
11.
Closs, S.J. (1992) Post-operative patients' views of sleep, pain and recovery . Journal of Clinical Nursing1: 2, 83-88 .
12.
Davis, A.J. (1980) Research as an in actional situation: Objectivity of the interview . International Journal of Nursing Studies17: 215-220 .
13.
Department of Health (1997) The New NHS: A First Class Service. London: DoH .
14.
Department of Health (1998) A first class service: quality in the new NHS. Leeds: DoH .
15.
Dillman, D.A. (1978) Mailand Telephone Surveys. The total design method. New York: John Wiley and Sons .
16.
Einarson, A. , Ahmed Syed, F. , Gallo, M. , et al. (1999) Reproducibility of medical information obtained via the telephone versus personal interview . Veterinary and Human Toxicology4l: 6, 397-400 .
17.
Elliot, S. , Reimer, C. (1998) Postdischarge telephone follow-up program for breastfeeding preterm infants discharged from a special care nursery . Neonatal Network17: 6, 41-45 .
18.
Fink, A.The Survey Kit. London: Sage .
19.
Florin, D. , Rosen, R. (1999) Evaluating NHS Direct . British Medical Journal319: 5-6 .
20.
Fontana, A. , Frey, J.H. (1994) Interviewing: The art of science. In: Denzin, N.K. , Lincoln, YS. (eds). Handbook of Qualitative Research. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage .
21.
Frey, J. H. (1983) Survey Research by Telephone. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage Publications .
22.
Funkhouser, E. , Macaluso, M. , Wang, X. (2000) Alternative strategies for selecting population controls: Comparison of random digit dialing and targeted telephone calls . Annals of Epidemiology10: 1, 59-67 .
23.
Harris, D. , Grimshaw, J. , Lemon, J. (1993) The use of computer-assisted telephone interview technique in a general practice research study . Family Practice10: 4, 454-458 .
24.
Herzog A. , Rodgers, W. (1988) Interviewing older adults: Mode comparison using data from a face-to-face survey and a telephone resurvey . Public Opinion Quarterly52: 84-99 .
25.
Hopper, R. (1992) Telephone Conversation. Bloomington, Indiana: Indiana University Press .
26.
Hoyt, M.J. , Nokes, A. , Newshan, G. , et al. (1994) The effect of chemical dependency on pain perception in persons with AIDS . Journal of the Association of Nurses AlDS Care5: 3, 33-38 .
27.
Jacobs, J. , Harvey, J. (2000) Evaluation of an Australian miscarriage support programme . British Journal of Nursing9: 1, 22-26 .
28.
Jick, T.D. , (1979) Mixing qualitative and quantitative methods: triangulation in action . Administrative Science Quarterly24: 602-611 .
29.
Jonnalagadda, S.A. , Mitchell, D.C. , Smiciklas-Wright, H. (2000) Accuracy of energy intake data estimated by a multiple-pass, 24-hour dietary recall technique . Journal of the American Dietetic Association100: 3, 303-308 .
30.
Ketola, E. , Klockers, M. (1999) Computer-assisted telephone interview (CATI) in primary care . Family Practice16: 2, 179-183 .
31.
Knafl, K.A. , Breitmayer, B.J. (1991) Triangulation in qualitative research: issues of conceptual clarity and purpose. In: More, J.M. (Ed). Qualitative Nursing Research: A Contemporary Dialogue. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage .
Law, M. (1997) A telephone survey of day surgery eye patients . Journal of Advanced Nursing25: 2, 355-363 .
34.
Lyu, L. , Hankin, J.H. , Liu, L.Q. (1998) Telephone vs face-to-face interviews for quantitative food frequency . Journal of the American Dietetic Association98: 1, 44-48 .
35.
Marcus, A. , Crane L. (1986) Telephone surveys in public health research . Medical Care24: 2, 97-112 .
36.
Marks, I.M. , Baer, I. , Greist, J.H.et al. (1998) Home self-assessment of obsessive compulsive disorder. Use of a manual and a computer-conducted telephone interview: Two studies . British Journal of Psychiatry172: 406 .
37.
Marsden, J. (1999) Expert nurse decision-making: telephone triage in an ophthalmic accident and emergency department . NT Research4: 1, 44-54 .
38.
May, K.A. (1991) Interview techniques in qualitative research: concerns and challenges. In: Morse: J.M. (ed). Qualitative Nursing Research: A contemporary dialogue. Thousand Oaks, California: Sage .
39.
Minnick, A. , Young, W.B. (1999) Comparison between reports of care obtained by postdischarge telephone interview and pre-discharge personal interview . Outcomes Management for Nursing Practice3: 1, 32-37 .
40.
Moser, C.A. , Kalton, G. (1986) Survey Methods in Social Investigation. Aldershot: Gower .
41.
Nay-Brock, R.M. (1984) A comparison of the questionnaire and interviewing techniques in the collection of sociological data . Australian Journal of Advanced Nursing2: 1, 14-23 .
42.
O'Cathain, A. , Munro, I.F. , Nicholl J.P. (2000) How helpful is NHS Direct? A Postal survey of callers . British Medical Journal320: 1035 .
43.
Oppenheim, A.N. (1992) Questionnaire Design and Attitude Measurement. New York: Basic Books, Inc.
44.
Parahoo, K. (1997) Nursing Research: Principles, Process and Issues. Basingstoke: Macmillan .
45.
Patton, M.Q. (1990) Qualitative Evaluation and Research Methods. 2nd edn.London: Sage .
46.
Pencheon, D. (1998) NHS Direct: Evaluate, integrate or bust . British Medical Journal317: 1026-1027 .
Reiser, S.J. (1993) The era of the patient: using the experience of illness in shaping the missions of health care . JAMA269: 8, 1012-1017 .
49.
Robson, C. (1993) Real World Research. Oxford: Blackwell .
50.
Rose, K.E. (1998) The telephone as a data collection instrument in qualitative study of informal carers of terminally ill cancer patients . European Journal of Oncology Nursing2: 1, 59-61 .
51.
Rose, M.A. , Shrader-Bogen, C.L. , Korlath, G. (1996) Identifying patient symptoms after radiotherapy using a nurse-managed telephone interview . Oncology Nursing Forum23: 1, 99-109 .
52.
Sandelowski, M. , 1993. Rigor or rigor mortis: The problem of rigor in qualitative research revisited . Advances in Nursing Science16: 1-8 .
53.
Tasa, K. , Baker, R.G. , Murray, M. (1996) Using patient feedback for quality improvement . Quality Management in Healthcare4: 2, 55-67 .
54.
Tierney, A.J. , Macmillan, M.S. , Worth, A.et al. (1993) Discharge Planning for Elderly People Going Home from Hospital: Experiences of patients and their carers. Research Report. Edinburgh: Nursing Research Unit, University of Edinburgh .
55.
Treece, E.W. , Treece, J.W. (1986) Elements of Research in Nursing. 4th edn.St Louis: Mosby .
56.
Victor, C. R. (1988) Some methodological aspects of using postal questionnaires with the elderly . Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics7: 163-172 .
57.
Waterman H. , Leatherbarrow, B. , Slater, R. . (1999) Postoperative pain, nausea and vomiting: Qualitative perspectives from telephone interviews . Journal of Advanced Nursing29: 3, 690-696 .
58.
Webb, C. (1984) Feminist methodology in nursing research: women's perceptions of having a hysterectomy . Journal of Advanced Nursing9: 3, 249-256 .
59.
Wilson, K. (1996) Telephone work with service users: A qualitative exploration of visualism, 'real work', accessibility and relationships in community nursing. Unpublished doctoral dissertation. Manchester: University of Manchester.
60.
Wilson, K. , Roe, B. (1998) Interviewing older people by telephone following initial contact by postal survey . Journal of Advanced Nursing27: 575-581 .
61.
Worth A. , Tierney, A.J. (1993) Conducting research interviews with elderly people by telephone . Journal of Advanced Nursing18: 1077-1084 .
62.
Zigmond, A.S. , Snaith, R.P. (1983) The Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale . Acta Psychiatrica Scandinavica67: 361-370 .
