Approximately 350 million people have chronic hepatitis B infection, a leading cause of cirrhosis and hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Patients who are infected through parenteral or sexual transmission are also at risk for acquisition of HIV. Concomitant HIV infection can lead to an increased risk of morbidity and mortality from hepatitis B virus (HBV)-related cirrhosis, end-stage liver disease and HCC. This review will focus on the epidemiology, natural history and prevention of HBV infection and the modulating effect of HIV on the clinical expression of HBV disease.
References
1.
AlterM.J.Epidemiology of hepatitis B in Europe and worldwide.J Hepatol2003; 39Suppl 1: S64–S69.
2.
LavanchyD.Hepatitis B virus epidemiology, disease burden, treatment, and current and emerging prevention and control measures.J Viral Hepatol2004; 11: 97–107.
3.
LiawY.F., LeungN., GuanR.Asian-Pacific consensus statement on the management of chronic hepatitis B: a 2005 update.Liver Int2005; 25: 472–489.
4.
KeeffeE.B., DieterichD.T., HanS.B.A treatment algorithm for the management of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: an update.Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol2006; 4: 936–962.
5.
ShireN.J., ShermanK.E.Management of hepatitis B virus in HIV-positive patients.Minerva Gastroenterol Dietol2006; 52: 67–87.
6.
GarfeinR.S., VlahovD., GalaiN., DohertyM., NelsonK.Viral infections in short-term injection drug users: the prevalence of the hepatitis C, hepatitis B, human immunodeficiency, and human T-lymphotropic viruses.Am J Public Health1996; 86: 655–661.
7.
KingsleyL.A., RinaldoC.R., LyterD.W., ValdiserriR.O., BelleS.H., HoM.Sexual transmission efficiency of hepatitis B virus and human immunodeficiency virus among homosexual men.JAMA1990; 264: 230–234.
8.
OckengaJ., TillmannH., TrautweinC., StollM., MannsM., SchmidtR.Hepatitis B and C in HIV-infected patients: prevalence and prognostic value.J Hepatol1997; 27: 18–24.
9.
TreitingerA., SpadaC., FerreiraL.A.Hepatitis B and hepatitis C prevalence among blood donors and HIV-1 infected patients in Florianopolis, Brazil.Braz J Infect Dis2000; 4: 192–196.
10.
DimitrakopoulosA., TakouA., HaidaA., MolangeliS., GialerakiA., KordossisT.The prevalence of hepatitis B and C in HIV-positive Greek patients: relationship to survival of deceased AIDS patients.J Infect2000; 40: 127–131.
11.
AlbertiA., ClumeckN., CollinsS.Short statement of the first European Consensus Conference on the treatment of chronic hepatitis B and C in HIV co-infected patients.J Hepatol2005; 42: 615–624.
12.
PuotiM., AiroldiM., BrunoR.Hepatitis B virus co-infection in HIV-infected subjects.AIDS Rev2002; 4: 27–35.
13.
ThioC.L.Hepatitis B in the human immunodeficiency virus-infected patient: epidemiology, natural history, and treatment.Semin Liver Dis2003; 23: 125–136.
14.
SaillourF., DabisF., DuponM.Prevalence and determinants of antibodies to hepatitis C virus and markers for hepatitis B virus infection in patients with HIV infection in Aquitaine. Groupe d'Epidémiologie Clinique du SIDA en Aquitaine.BMJ1996; 24: 461–464.
15.
EjeleO.A., NwaucheC.A., ErhaborO.The prevalence of hepatitis B surface antigenaemia in HIV positive patients in the Niger Delta, Nigeria.Niger J Med2004; 13: 175–179.
16.
SudA., SinghJ., DhimanR.K., WanchuA., SinghS., ChawlaY.Hepatitis B virus co-infection in HIV infected patients.Gastroenterology2001; 22: 90–92.
17.
IdokoJ., MeloniS., MuazuM.Hepatitis B virus co-infection affects baseline HIV parameters and HAART-related hepatotoxicity risk in an HIV-infected Nigerian cohort. 14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. 25–28 February 2007, Los Angeles, CA, USA. Abstract 920.
18.
AlterM.J.Prevalence of viral hepatitis in HIV-infected persons.HIV & Liver Disease Meeting. 15–16 September, 2006, Jackson Hole, WY, USA.
19.
KellermanS., HansonD., McNaghtenA.D., FlemingP.L.Prevalence of chronic hepatitis B and incidence of acute hepatitis B infection in human immunodeficiency virus-infected subjects.J Infect Dis2003; 188: 571–577.
McMahonB.J., AlwardW.L.M., HallD.B.Acute hepatitis B virus infection: relation of age to the clinical expression of disease and subsequent development of the carrier state.J Infect Dis1985; 151: 599–603.
22.
TassopoulosN., PapaevangelouG., SjogrenM., Roumeliotou-KarayannisA., GerinJ., PurcellR.Natural history of acute hepatitis B surface antigen-positive hepatitis in Greek adults.Gastroenterology1987; 92: 1844–1850.
23.
RaimondoG., PollicinoT., SquadritoG.Clinical virology of hepatitis B virus infection.J Hepatol2003; 39Suppl 1: S26–S30.
24.
RehermannB., FerrariC., PasquinelliC., ChisariF.V.The hepatitis B virus persists for decades after patients’ recovery from acute viral hepatitis despite active maintenance of a cytotoxic T-lymphocyte response.Nat Med1996; 2: 1104–1108.
25.
ConjeevaramH.S., LokA.S.Occult hepatitis B virus infection: a hidden menace?Hepatology2001; 34: 204–206.
26.
BodsworthN., DonovanB., NightingaleB.N.The effects of concurrent human immunodeficiency virus infection on chronic hepatitis B: a study of 150 homosexual men.J Infect Dis1989; 160: 577–582.
27.
HomannC., KrogsgaardK., PedersenC., AnderssonP., NielsenJ.O.High incidence of hepatitis B infection and evolution of chronic hepatitis B infection in patients with advanced HIV infection.J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr1991; 4: 416–420.
28.
GilsonR.J., HawkinsA.E., BeechamM.R.Interaction between HIV and hepatitis B virus in homosexual men: effects on the natural history of infection.AIDS1997; 11: 597–606.
29.
HadlerS., JudsonF.N., O'MalleyP.M.Outcome of hepatitis B virus infection in homosexual men and its relation to prior HIV infection.J Infect Dis1991; 163: 454–459.
30.
ColinJ.F., Cazals-HatemD., LoriotM.A.Influence of human immunodeficiency virus infection on chronic hepatitis B in homosexual men.Hepatology1999; 29: 1306–1310.
31.
ThioC.L., NetskiD., MyungJ., SeabergE.C., ThomasD.Changes in hepatitis B virus DNA levels with acute HIV infection.Clin Infect Dis2004; 38: 1024–1029.
32.
SakugawaH., NakasoneH., NakayoshiT.Hepatitis B virus concentrations in serum determined by sensitive quantitative assays in patients with established chronic hepatitis delta virus infection.J Med Virol2001; 65: 478–484.
33.
KrogsgaardK., KrygerP., AldershvileJ., AnderssonP., SorensenT., NielsenJ.O.Delta-infection and suppression of hepatitis B virus replication in chronic HBsAg carriers.Hepatology1987; 7: 42–44.
34.
PerrilloR.P.Acute flares in chronic hepatitis B: the natural and unnatural history of an immunologically mediated liver disease.Gastroenterology2001; 120: 1009–1022.
35.
MarcellinP., ChangT.T., LimS.G.Adefovir dipivoxil for the treatment of hepatitis B e antigen-positive chronic hepatitis B.N Engl J Med2003; 348: 808–816.
36.
Di BisceglieA.M., WaggonerJ.G., HoofnagleJ.H.Hepatitis B virus deoxyribonucleic acid in liver of chronic carriers: correlation with serum markers and changes associated with loss of hepatitis B e antigen after antiviral therapy.Gastroenterology1987; 93: 1236–1241.
37.
LokA.S., HeathcoteE.J., HoofnagleJ.H.Management of hepatitis B: 2000-summary of a workshop.Gastroenterology2001; 120: 1828–1853.
38.
HsuY.S., ChienR.N., YehC.T.Long-term outcome after spontaneous HBeAg seroconversion in patients with chronic hepatitis B.Hepatology2002; 35: 1522–1527.
39.
de FranchisR., HadengueA., LauG.EASL International Consensus Conference on Hepatitis B.J Hepatol2003; 39Suppl 1: S3–S25.
40.
HoofnagleJ.H., DusheikoG.M., SeeffL.B., JonesE.A., WaggonerJ.G., BalesZ.B.Seroconversion from hepatitis B e antigen to antibody in chronic type B hepatitis.Ann Intern Med1981; 94: 744–748.
41.
McMahonB.J., HolckP., BulkowL., SnowballM.Serologic and clinical outcomes of 1536 Alaska natives chronically infected with hepatitis B virus.Ann Intern Med2001; 135: 759–768.
42.
FattovichG.Natural history of hepatitis B.J Hepatol2003; 39Suppl 1: S50–S58.
43.
KaoJ.H., ChenP.J., LaiM.Y., ChenD.S.Hepatitis B genotypes correlate with clinical outcomes in patients with chronic hepatitis B.Gastroenterology2000; 118: 554–559.
44.
ChuC.J., HussainM., LokA.S.Hepatitis B virus genotype B is associated with earlier HBeAg seroconversion compared with hepatitis B virus genotype C.Gastroenterology2002; 122: 1756–1762.
45.
PerrilloR.P., RegensteinF.G., RoodmanS.T.Chronic hepatitis B in asymptomatic homosexual men with antibody to the human immunodeficiency virus.Ann Int Med1986; 105: 382–383.
46.
McGovernB.What drives hepatitis B virus-related hepatic flares? Virus, T cells, or a bit of both?Clin Infect Dis2004; 39: 133–135.
47.
McGovernB.HAART and hepatic safety.J Int Assoc Physicians AIDS Care2004; 3Suppl 2: S23–S42.
48.
ClarkS.J., CreightonS., HornerM.Reactivation of latent hepatitis B virus infection with HIV-related immunosuppression.Int J STD AIDS2006; 17: 67–69.
49.
ManegoldC., HannounC., WywiolA.Reactivation of hepatitis B virus replication accompanied by acute hepatitis in patients receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy.Clin Infect Dis2001; 32: 144–148.
50.
MaiA.L., YimC., O'RourkeK., HeathcoteJ.The interaction of human immunodeficiency virus infection and hepatitis B virus infection in infected homosexual men.J Clin Gastroenterol1996; 22: 299–304.
51.
CarrA., CooperD.A.Restoration of immunity to chronic hepatitis B infection in HIV-infected patient on protease inhibitor.Lancet1997; 349: 995–996.
52.
BoniC., BertolettiA., PennaA.Lamivudine treatment can restore T cell responsiveness in chronic hepatitis B.J Clin Invest1998; 102: 968–975.
53.
ShengW.H., HungC., ChangS.Evolution of hepatitis B virus serological markers in HIV-infected persons receiving HAART.14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. 25–28 February 2007, Los Angeles, CA, USA. Abstract 941.
54.
HadziyannisS., VassilopoulosD.Hepatitis B e Antigen-negative chronic hepatitis B.Hepatology2001; 34: 617–624.
55.
LiawY.F., SheenI.S., ChenT.J., ChuC.M., PaoC.C.Incidence, determinants and significance of delayed clearance of serum HBsAg in chronic hepatitis B virus infection: a prospective study.Hepatology1991; 13: 627–631.
56.
McMahonB., AlbertsS., WainwrightR., BulkowL., LanierA.Hepatitis B-related sequelae. Prospective study in 1400 hepatitis B surface antigen-positive Alaska native carriers.Arch Intern Med1990; 150: 1051–1054.
57.
ChenY.C., SheenI.S., ChuC.M., LiawY.F.Prognosis following spontaneous HBsAg seroclearance in chronic hepatitis B patients with or without chronic infection.Gastroenterology2002; 123: 1084–1089.
58.
HuoT.I., WuJ.C., LeeP.C.Sero-clearance of hepatitis B surface antigen in chronic carriers does not necessarily imply a good prognosis.Hepatology1998; 28: 231–236.
59.
BiggarR.J., GoedertJ.J., HoofnagleJ.Accelerated loss of antibody to hepatitis B surface antigen among immunodeficient homosexual men infected with HIV.N Engl J Med1987; 316: 630–631.
60.
CacciolaI., PollicinoT., SquadritoG., CerenziaG., OrlandoM.E., RaimondoG.Occult hepatitis B virus infection in patients with chronic hepatitis C liver disease.N Engl J Med1999; 341: 22–26.
HoofnagleJ.H., SeeffL.B., BalesZ.B., ZimmermanH.J.Type B hepatitis after transfusion with blood containing antibody to hepatitis B core antigen.N Engl J Med1978; 298: 1379–1383.
63.
WachsM.E., AmendW.J., AscherN.L.The risk of transmission of hepatitis B from HBsAg (-), HBcAb (+), HBcIgM (-) organ donors.Transplantation1995; 59: 230–234.
64.
MasonA.L., XuL., GuoL., KuhnsM., PerrilloR.P.Molecular basis for persistent hepatitis B virus infection in the liver after clearance of serum hepatitis B surface antigen.Hepatology1998; 27: 1736–1742.
65.
WursthornK., BuggischP., LutgehetmannM., ZollnerB., PetersonJ.Temporary HBV resolution in an HIV-coinfected patient during HBV-directed combination therapy followed by relapse of HBV.Antivir Ther2006; 11: 647–652.
66.
LokA.S., LiangR.H., ChiuE.K., WongK.L., ChanT.K., ToddD.Reactivation of hepatitis B virus replication in patients receiving cytotoxic therapy: report of a prospective study.Gastroenterology1991; 100: 182–188.
67.
RocheB., SamuelD., GigouM.De novo and apparent de novo hepatitis B virus infection after liver transplantation.J Hepatol1997; 26: 517–526.
68.
GandhiR.T., WurcelA., LeeH.Isolated antibody to hepatitis B core antigen in human immunodeficiency virus-infected individuals.Clin Infect Dis2003; 36: 1602–1605.
69.
HoferM., Joller-JemelkaH., GrobP., LuthyR., OpravilM.Frequent chronic hepatitis B virus infection in HIV-infected patients positive for antibody to hepatitis B core antigen only.Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis1998; 17: 6–13.
70.
SantosE.A., YoshidaC.F., RollaV.C.Frequent occult hepatitis B virus infection in patients infected with human immunodeficiency virus type 1.Eur J Clin Microbiol Infect Dis2003; 22: 92–98.
71.
NeauD., WinnockM., JouvencelA.Occult hepatitis B virus infection in HIV-infected patients with isolated antibodies to hepatitis B core antigen: Aquitaine cohort, 2002–2003.Clin Infect Dis2005; 40: 750–753.
72.
FilippiniP., CoppolaN., PisapiaR.Impact of occult hepatitis B virus infection in HIV patients naive for antiretroviral therapy.AIDS2006; 20: 1253–1260.
73.
PoganyK., ZaaijerH.L., PrinsJ.M., WitF.W., LangeJ.M., BeldM.G.Occult hepatitis B virus infection before and 1 year after start of HAART in HIV type 1-positive patients.AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses2005; 21: 922–926.
74.
Lo ReV.III, KostmanJ., FrankI.Increased incidence of transaminitis among HIV patients with occult hepatitis B.14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic Infections. Los Angeles, CA, 25–28 February 2007. Abstract 929.
75.
FattovichG.Natural history and prognosis of hepatitis B.Semin Liver Dis2003; 23: 47–58.
76.
IkedaK., SaitohS., SuzukiY.Disease progression and hepatocellular carcinogenesis in patients with chronic viral hepatitis: a prospective observation of 2215 patients.J Hepatol1998; 28: 930–938.
77.
IloejeU.H., YangH.I., SuJ., JenC.L., YouS.L., ChenC.J.Risk Evaluation of Viral Load Elevation and Associated Liver Disease/Cancer-in HBV (the REVEAL-HBV) study group. Predicting cirrhosis risk based on the level of circulating hepatitis B viral load.Gastroenterology2006; 130: 678–686.
78.
FattovichG., PantalenaM., ZagniI.Effect of hepatitis B and C virus infections on the natural history of compensated cirrhosis: a cohort study of 297 patients.Am J Gastroenterol2002; 97: 2886–2895.
79.
Di MarcoV., Lo IaconnoO., CammaC.The long-term course of chronic hepatitis B.Hepatology1999; 30: 257–264.
80.
FattovichG., BrolloL., AlbertiA., PontissoP., GiustinaG., RealdiG.Long-term follow-up of anti-HBe-positive chronic active hepatitis B.Hepatology1988; 8: 1651–1654.
81.
SumiH., YokosukaO., SekiN.Influence of hepatitis B virus genotypes on the progression of chronic type B liver disease.Hepatology2003; 37: 19–26.
82.
ThioC., BonaciniM., BzowejN., LouieS., WohlA.Survival in patients with HIV infection and viral hepatitis B or C.AIDS2004; 18: 2039–2045.
83.
RectorW., GovindarajanS., HorsburghC., PenleyK., CohnD., JudsonF.N.Hepatitic inflammation, hepatitis B replication and cellular immune function in homosexual males with chronic hepatitis B and antibody to HIV.Am J Gastroenterol1988; 83: 262–266.
84.
ThioC.L., SeabergE.C., SkolaskyR.Jr.HIV-1, hepatitis B virus, and risk of liver-related mortality in the Multicenter Cohort Study (MACS).Lancet2002; 360: 1921–1926.
85.
RustgiV.K., HoofnagleJ.H., GerinJ.L.Hepatitis B virus infection in the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome.Ann Intern Med1984; 101: 795–797.
86.
ShengW.H., ChenM.Y., HsiehS.M.Impact of chronic hepatitis B virus (HBV) infection on outcomes of patients infected with HIV in an area where HBV infection is hyperendemic.Clin Infect Dis2004; 38: 1471–1477.
87.
KonopnickiD., MocroftA., de WitS.Hepatitis B and HIV: prevalence, AIDS progression, response to highly active antiretroviral therapy and increased mortality in the EuroSIDA cohort.AIDS2005; 19: 593–601.
88.
BonaciniM., LouieS., BzowejN., WohlA.Survival in patients with HIV infection and viral hepatitis B or C: a cohort study.AIDS2004; 18: 2039–2046.
89.
Group TDCoAEoA-HDS.Liver-related deaths in person infected with the human immunodeficiency virus.Arch Intern Med2006; 166: 1632–1641.
90.
McGovernB.H., GolanY., LopezM.The impact of cirrhosis on absolute CD4+ T-cell counts in HIV-seronegative patients.Clin Infect Dis2007; 44: 431–437.
91.
NunezM., RamosB., Diaz-PollanB.Virological outcome of chronic hepatitis B virus infection in HIV-coinfected patients receiving anti-HBV active antiretroviral therapy.AIDS Res Hum Retrov2006; 22: 842–848.
92.
DieterichD.T.Special considerations and treatment of patients with HBV-HIV coinfection.Antivir Ther12Suppl 3: H43–H51.
93.
FattovichG., GiustinaG., SchalmS.W.Occurrence of hepatocellular carcinoma and decompensation in Western European patients with cirrhosis type B.Hepatology1995; 21: 77–82.
94.
ChanH.L., HuiA.Y., WongM.L.Genotype C hepatitis B virus infection is associated with an increased risk of hepatocellular carcinoma.Gut2004; 53: 1494–1498.
95.
ChenC.J., YangH.I., SuJ.Risk of hepatocellular carcinoma across a biological gradient of serum hepatitis B virus DNA level.JAMA2006; 295: 65–73.
96.
BrunoR., PuotiM., SacchiP., FiliceC., CarosiG., FiliceG.Management of hepatocellular carcinoma in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients.J Hepatol2006; 44Suppl 1: S146–S150.
97.
PuotiM., BrunoR., SorianoV.Hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients: epidemiological features, clinical presentation and outcome.AIDS2004; 18: 2285–2293.
98.
Garcia-SamaniegoJ., RodriguizM., BerenguerJ.Hepatocellular carcinoma in HIV-infected patients with chronic hepatitis C.Am J Gastroenterol2001; 96: 179–183.
99.
ChenD.S., HsuN.H., SungJ.L.A mass vaccination program in Taiwan against hepatitis B virus infection in infants of hepatitis B surface antigen-carrier mothers.JAMA1987; 257: 2597–2603.
100.
ChenH.L., ChangM.H., NiY.H.Seroprevalence of hepatitis B virus infection in children: ten years of mass vaccination in Taiwan.JAMA1996; 276: 906–908.
101.
LeeC.L., HsiehK.S., KoY.C.Trends in the incidence of hepatocellular carcinoma in boys and girls in Taiwan after large-scale hepatitis B vaccine.Cancer Epidem Biomar Prev2003; 12: 57.
102.
MastE.E., MargolisH.S., FioreA.E.A comprehensive immunization strategy to eliminate transmission of hepatitis B virus infection in the United States: recommendations of the Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) Part 1: immunization of infants, children, and adolescents.MMWR Recomm Rep2005; 54(RR-16): 1–31; erratum in MMWR 2006; 55: 158–159.
103.
McMahonB.J., BrudenD.L., PetersenK.M.Antibody levels and protection after hepatitis B vaccination: results of a 15-year follow-up.Ann Intern Med2005; 142: 333–341.
104.
MasurH., KaplanJ.E., HolmesK.K. the US Public Health Service, Infectious Diseases Society of America. Guidelines for preventing opportunistic infections among HIV-infected persons—2002. Recommendations of the U.S. Public Health Service and the Infectious Diseases Society of America.Ann Intern Med2002; 137: 435–478.
105.
BrookG.Prevention of viral hepatitis in HIV coinfection.J Hepatol2006; 44Suppl 1: S104–S107.
106.
LaurenceJ.C.Hepatitis A and B immunizations of individuals infected with human immunodeficiency virus.Am J Med2005; 118Suppl 10A: 75S–83S.
107.
OdakaN., EldredL., CohnS.Comparative immunogenicity of plasma and recombinant hepatitis B virus vaccines in homosexual men.JAMA1988; 260: 3635–3637.
108.
CollierA.C., CoreyL., MurphyV.L., HandsfieldH.H.Antibody to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and suboptimal response to hepatitis B vaccination.Ann Intern Med1988; 109: 101–105.
109.
WilsonC.M., EllenbergJ.H., SawyerM.K., for the Adolescent Medicine HIV-AIDS Research Network. Serologic response to hepatitis B vaccine in HIV infected and high-risk HIV uninfected adolescents in the REACH cohort. Reaching for Excellence in Adolescent Care and Health.J Adolesc Health2001; 29Suppl 3: 123–129.
110.
LugoboniF., MigliozziS., MezzelaniP., PajuscoB., CeravoloR., QuaglioG.Progressive decrease of hepatitis B in a cohort of drug users followed over a period of 15 years: the impact of anti-HBV vaccination.Scand J Infect Dis2004; 36: 131–133.
111.
PostelN., WolfE., KoeglC.Anti-HBV vaccination in HIV-infection: successful only with CD4 cell count >500/mul combined with a viral load below 1000 cps/ml [abstract MoPeB3330]. Abstracts from the International Conference on AIDS, July 11–16, 2004. Available at: http://gateway.nlm.nih.gov/MeetingAbstracts/102279632.html. [Accessed September 7, 2007.].
112.
GandhiR.T., WurcelA., LeeH.Response to hepatitis B vaccine in HIV-1-positive subjects who test positive for isolated antibody to hepatitis B core antigen: implications for hepatitis B vaccine strategies.J Infect Dis2005; 191: 1435–1441.
113.
OvertonE.T., SungkanuparphS., PowderlyW.G., SeyfriedW., GrogerR.K., AbergJ.A.Undetectable plasma HIV RNA load predicts success after hepatitis B vaccination in HIV-infected persons.Clin Infect Dis2005; 41: 1045–1048.
114.
FonsecaM.O., PangL.W., de Paula CavalheiroN., BaroneA.A., Heloisa LopesM.Randomized trial of recombinant hepatitis B vaccine in HIV-infected adult patients comparing a standard dose to a double dose.Vaccine2005; 23: 2902–2908.
115.
CooperC.L., DavisH.L., AngelJ.B.CPG 7909 adjuvant improves hepatitis B virus vaccine seroprotection in antiretroviral-treated HIV-infected adults.AIDS2005; 19: 1473–1479.
116.
CooperC., AngelJ., SeguinI., CoteD., DavisH., CameronW.CpG adjuvant + HBV vaccination in HIV infection achieves long-term seroprotection for as long as 5 years.14th Conference on Retroviruses and Opportunistic infections. 25–28 February 2007, Los Angeles, CA, USA. Abstract 134.
117.
WallaceM.R., BrandtC.J., EarhartK.C.Safety and immunogenicity of an inactivated hepatitis A vaccine among HIV-infected subjects.Clin Infect Dis2004; 39: 1207–1213.
118.
NeilsenG.A., BodsworthN.J., WattsN.Response to hepatitis A vaccination in human immunodeficiency virus-infected and -uninfected homosexual men.J Infect Dis1997; 176: 1064–1067.
119.
ShireN.J., WelgeJ.A., ShermanK.E.Efficacy of inactivated hepatitis A vaccine in HIV-infected patients: a hierarchical bayesian meta-analysis.Vaccine2006; 24: 272–279.
120.
KemperC.A., HaubrichR., FrankI.Safety and immunogenicity of hepatitis A vaccine in human immunodeficiency virus-infected patients: a double-blind, randomized, placebo-controlled trial.J Infect Dis2003; 187: 1827–1831.
121.
RimlandD., GuestJ.L.Response to hepatitis A vaccine in HIV patients in the HAART era.AIDS2005; 19: 1702–1704.
