Capuchin monkeys are well-known for their extensive manipulative propen sities which rival those of chimpanzees. This report examines the produc tion and use of tools by capuchins with the aim of gaining insight into the origins of hominid material culture. It is proposed that research examining tool-making and tool-using in extant nonhuman primates can facilitate greater understanding of the mental life of Homo habilis and other early hominid species.
Anderson, J.R. (1996) 'Chimpanzees and Capuchin Monkeys: Comparative Cognition', in A.E. Russon, K.A. Bard and S.T. Parker (eds) Reaching into Thought: The Minds of the Great Apes, pp.23-56. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
2.
Anderson, J.R. and Henneman, M.C. (1994) 'Solutions to a Tool-use Problem in a Pair of Cebus apella', Mammalia58: 351-61.
Boesch, C. and Boesch, H. (1989) 'Hunting Behavior of Wild Chimpanzees in the Tai National Park', American Journal of Physical Anthropology78: 547-73.
5.
Boesch, C. and Boesch, H. (1990) 'Tool Use and Tool Making in Wild Chimpanzees' , Folia Primatologica54: 86-99.
6.
Boinski, S. (1988) 'Use of a Club by a White-faced Capuchin (Cebus capucinus) to attack a Venomous Snake (Bothrops asper)', American Journal of Primatology14: 177-9.
7.
Boysen, S.T., Berntson, G.G. and Prentice, J. (1987) 'Simian Scribbles: A Reappraisal of Drawing in the Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes)', Journal of Comparative Psychology101: 82-9.
8.
Bunn, H.T. (1981) 'Archaeological Evidence for Meat-eating by Plio-Pleistocene Hominids from Koobi Fora and Olduvai Gorge', Nature291: 574-7.
9.
Bunn, H.T. and Kroll, E.M. (1986) 'Systematic Butchery by Plio-Pleistocene Hominids at Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania'Current Anthropology27: 431-52.
10.
Corballis, M.C. (1991) The Lopsided Ape: Evolution of the Generative Mind . New York: Oxford University Press.
11.
Darwin, C. (1859) On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection . London: J. Murray.
12.
Davidson, I. (1991) The Archaeology of Language Origins - a Review , Antiquity65: 39-48.
13.
Davis, W. (1986) 'The Origins of Image Making', Current Anthropology27: 193-216.
14.
Fernandes, M.E.B. (1991) 'Tool Use and Predation of Oysters (Crassostrea rhizophorae) by the Tufted Capuchin, Cebus apella apella, in Brackish Water Mangrove Swamp',. Primates32: 529-31.
15.
Fobes, J.L. and King, J.E. (1982) 'Measuring primate learning abilities' in J.L. Fobes and J.E. King (eds) Primate Behavior, pp. 289-326. New York: Academic Press.
16.
Fragaszy, D.M. (1990) 'Early Behavioral Development in Capuchins (Cebus) ', Folia Primatologica54: 119-28.
17.
Frost, G.T. (1980) 'Tool Behavior and the Origins of Laterality', Journal of Human Evolution9: 447-59.
18.
Gallup, G.G. Jr (1970) 'Chimpanzees: Self-recognition', Science167: 86-7.
19.
Gallup, G.G. Jr (1982) 'Self-awareness and the Emergence of Mind in Primates' , American Journal of Primatology2: 237-48.
20.
Gallup, G.G. Jr (1987) 'Self awareness', in G. Mitchell and J. Erwin (eds) Comparative Primate Biology, vol. 2B: Behavior, Cognition, and Motivation, pp. 3-16. New York: Alan R. Liss.
21.
Gibson, K.R. (1986) 'Cognition, Brain size and the Extraction of Embedded Food Sources' in J.G. Else and P.C. Lee (eds) Primate Ontogeny, Cognition, and Social Behavior, pp. 93-103. Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
22.
Halverson, J. (1987) 'Art for Art's Sake in the Paleolithic', Current Anthropology28: 63-9.
23.
Harlow, H.F. and Settlage, P.H. (1934) 'Comparative behavior of Primates. VII. Capacity of Monkeys to Solve Patterned String Tests'Journal of Comparative Psychology18: 423-35.
24.
Hewes, G.W. (1961) 'Food Transport and the Origin of Hominid Bipedalism' , American Anthropologist63: 687-710.
25.
Holloway, R.L. (1969) 'Culture: A Human Domain', Current Anthropology10: 395-412.
26.
Hopkins, W.D. (1993) 'Posture and Reaching in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) and Orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus)', Journal of Comparative Psychology107: 162-8.
27.
Hopkins, W.D., Bennett, A., Bales, S., Lee, J. and Ward, J.P. (1993) 'Behavioral Laterality in Captive Bonobos (Pan paniscus)', Journal of Comparative Psychology107: 403-10.
28.
Hunt, K.D. (1994) 'The Evolution of Human Bipedality: Ecology and Functional Morphology', Journal of Human Evolution26: 183-202.
29.
Isaac, G.L. (1982) 'The Earliest Archaeological Traces', in J.D. Clark (ed.) The Cambridge History of Africa, vol. 1: From the Earliest Times to c. 500 BCCambridge : Cambridge University Press.
30.
Köhler, W. (1927) The Mentality of Apes. New York: Vintage Books.
31.
Klüver, H. (1933) Behavior Mechanisms in Monkeys. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
32.
Leakey, M.D. (1971) Olduvai Gorge, vol. 3: Excavations in Beds I and II. London: Cambridge University Press.
33.
Leakey, M.D. & Hay, R.L. (1979) 'Pliocene Footprints in the Laetoli Beds at Laetoli, Northern Tanzania', Nature278: 317-23.
34.
Lovejoy, C.O. (1981) 'The Origin of Man', Science211: 341-50.
35.
McGrew, W.C. (1992) Chimpanzee Material Culture: Implications for Human Evolution. New York: Cambridge University Press.
36.
McGrew, W.C., Baldwin, P.J. and Tutin, C.E.G. (1981) 'Chimpanzees in a Hot, Dry, and Open Habitat: Mt. Assirik, Senegal, West Africa', Journal of Human Evolution10: 227-44.
37.
MacNeilage, P.F., Studdert-Kennedy, M.G. and Lindblom, B. (1987) 'Primate Handedness Reconsidered', Behavioral and Brain Sciences10: 247-303.
38.
Marchal, P. and Anderson, J.R. (1993) 'Mirror-image Responses in Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus capucinus): Social Responses and Use of Reflected Environmental Information' , Folia Primatologica61: 165-73.
39.
Marino, L. (1995) 'Brain-behavior Relations in Cetaceans and Primates: Implications for the Evolution of Complex Intelligence', unpublished doctoral dissertationState University of New York at Albany.
40.
Marshack, A. (1972) The Roots of Civilization. New York: McGraw Hill.
41.
Mathieu, M., Bouchard, M.A., Granger, L. and Herscovitch, J. (1976) 'Piagetian Object-permanence in Cebus capucinus, Lagothrica flavicauda and Pan troglodytes', Animal Behaviour24: 585-8.
42.
Menzel, E.W., Savage-Rumbaugh, E.S. and Lawson, J. (1985) 'Chimpanzee (Pan troglodytes) Spatial Problem Solving with the Use of Mirrors and Televised Equivalents of Mirrors', Journal of Comparative Psychology99: 211-17.
43.
Morris, D. (1962) The Biology of Art. London: Metheun.
44.
Napier, J.R. and Napier, P.H. (1985) The Natural History of the Primates . Cambridge: MIT Press.
45.
Olson, D.A., Ellis, J.E. and Nadler, R.D. (1990) 'Hand Preferences in Captive Gorillas, Orang-utans, and Gibbons', American Journal of Primatology20: 83-94.
46.
Parker, S.T., Mitchell, R.W. and Boccia, M.L., eds (1994) Self-awareness in Animals and Humans: Developmental Perspectives . New York: Cambridge University Press .
47.
Parker, S.T. and Gibson, K.R. (1977) 'Object Manipulation, Tool use and Sensorimotor Intelligence as Feeding Adaptations in Cebus Monkeys and Great Apes', Journal of Human Evolution6: 623-41.
48.
Potts, R. (1988) Early Hominid Activities at Olduvai . New York: Aldine de Gruyter.
49.
Potts, R. and Shipman, P. (1981) 'Cutmarks Made by Stone Tools on Bones from Olduvai Gorge, Tanzania', Nature291: 577-80.
50.
Povinelli, D.J., Rulf, A.B., Landau, K.R. and Bierschwale, T. (1993) 'Self-recognition in Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes): Distribution, Ontogeny, and Patterns of Emergence', Journal of Comparative Psychology107: 347-72.
51.
Riss, D.C. and Busse, C.D. (1977) 'Fifty-day Observation of Free-ranging Adult Male Chimpanzee', Folia Primatologzca28: 283-97.
52.
Schick, K.D. and Toth, N. (1993) Making Silent Stones Speak: Human Evolution and the Dawn of Technology. New York: Simon & Schuster.
53.
Schiller, P. (1951) 'Figural Preferences in the Drawings of a Chimpanzee' , Journal of Comparative and Physiological Psychology44: 101-11.
54.
Schino, G., Spinozzi, G. and Berlinguer, L. (1990) 'Object Concept and Mental Representation in Cebus apella and Macaca fascicularis', Primates 31: 537-44.
55.
Semaw, S.,Renne, P.,Harris , J.W.K.,Feibel, C.S.,Bernor, R.L.,Fesseha, N. andMowbray, K. (1997) '2.5-million-year-old Stone Tools from Gona, Ethiopia'Nature385: 333-6.
56.
Stephan, H. (1972) 'Evolution of Primate Brains: A Comparative Anatomical Investigation',. in R. Tuttle (ed.) The Functional and Evolutionary Biology of Primates, pp. 155-74. Chicago, IL: Aldine Press.
57.
Susman, R.L. (1994) 'Fossil Evidence for Early Hominid Tool Use', Science265: 1570-3.
58.
Toth, N. (1985a) 'The Oldowan Reassessed: A Close Look at Early Stone Artefacts', Journal of Archaeological Science12: 101-20.
59.
Toth, N. (1985b) 'Archaeological Evidence for Preferential Right-handedness in the Lower and Middle Pleistocene, and its Possible Implications', Journal of Human Evolution14: 607-14.
60.
Toth, N., Schick, K.D., Savage-Rumbaugh, Sevcik, R.A. and Rumbaugh, D.M. (1993) 'Pan the Tool-maker: Investigations into the Stone Tool-making and Tool-using Capabilities of a Bonobo (Pan paniscus )', Journal of Archaeological Science20: 81-91.
61.
Vauclair, J. (1984) 'Phylogenetic Approach to Object Manipulation in Human and Ape Infants', Human Development27: 321-8.
62.
Visalberghi, E. and Limongelli, L. (1994) 'Lack of Comprehension of Cause-effect Relations in Tool-using Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella)', Journal of Comparative Psychology108: 15-22.
63.
Westergaard, G.C. (1994) 'The Subsistence Technology of Capuchins', International Journal of Primatology15: 899-906.
64.
Westergaard, G.C. (1995) 'The Stone-tool Technology of Capuchin Monkeys: Possible Implications for the Evolution of Symbolic Communication in Hominids' , World Archaeology27: 1-9.
65.
Westergaard, G.C. and Fragaszy, D.M. (1987) 'The Manufacture and Use of Tools by Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella)'Journal of Comparative Psychology101: 159-68.
66.
Westergaard, G.C. and Kuhn, H.E. (under review), 'Skeletal Evidence for Precision Gripping in Cebus apella and its Implications for the Occurrence of Tool-use Among Gracile Australopithecines'.
67.
Westergaard, G.C., Kuhn, H.E., Lundquist, A.L. and Suomi, S.J. (1997) 'Posture and Reaching in Tufted Capuchins (Cebus apella)', Laterality 2: 65-74. Westergaard, G.C., Kuhn, H.E. and Suomi, S.J. (under review), 'Handedness and Bipedalism: Reaching or Tool-use?'
68.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1993), 'Hand Preference in the Use of Nut-cracking Tools by Tufted Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella)', Folia Primatologica61: 38-42.
69.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1994a) 'Stone-tool Bone-surface Modification by Monkeys ', Current Anthropology35: 468-70.
70.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1994b) 'A Simple Stone-tool Technology in Monkeys', Journal of Human Evolution27: 399-404.
71.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1995a) 'The Stone tools of Capuchins (Cebus apella)' , International Journal of Primatology 16: 1017-24.
72.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1995b) 'Mirror Inspection Varies with Age and Tool-using Ability in Tufted Capuchin Monkeys (Cebus apella)', Human Evolution10: 217-23.
73.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1995c) 'The Manufacture and Use of Bamboo Tools by Monkeys: Possible Implications for the Development of Material Culture Among East Asian Hominids', Journal of Archaeological Science22: 677-81.
74.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1995d) 'The Production and Use of Digging Tools by Monkeys: A Non-human Primate Model of a Hominid Subsistence Activity', Journal of Anthropological Research51: 1-8.
75.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1996a) 'Stone-throwing by Capuchins (Cebus apella): A Model of Throwing Capabilities in Homo habilis'Folia Primatologica65: 234-8.
76.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1996b) 'Hand Preference for Stone Artefact Production and Tool-use by Monkeys: Possible Implications for the Evolution of Right-handedness in Hominids', Journal of Human Evolution30: 291-8.
77.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1997a) 'Modification of Clay Forms by Tufted Capuchins (Cebus apella)', International Journal of Primatology18: 455-67.
78.
Westergaard, G.C. and Suomi, S.J. (1997b) 'Capuchin Monkey (Cebus apella) Grips for the Use of Stone Tools', American Journal of Physical Anthropology103: 131-5.
79.
Wright, R.V. (1972) 'Imitative Learning of a Flaked Tool Technology: The Case of an Orangutan', Mankind8: 296-306.
80.
Wynn, T. and McGrew, W.C. (1989) 'An Ape's View of the Oldowan', Man24: 383-98.