The most acceptable model explaining the associations between physical exercise and self-esteem is the exercise and self-esteem model (EXSEM). The present cross-sectional study tested the mediating role of body appreciation and physical fitness perception in the associations between physical activity and self-esteem in modified EXSEM. Overall, 1412 Lithuanian adolescents (40.2% were boys, mean age 17.0 (SD = 0.5) years) completed online questionnaires. The study was implemented in 2019 from October to December. Perceived physical fitness and body appreciation mediated the associations in the EXSEM. Physical fitness perception was directly associated with the self-esteem of girls, but not boys. Gender moderated EXSEM associations in body appreciation and perceived physical fitness showed stronger mediation effects for the adolescent girls compared to boys. Increasing physical activity, positive body image and perception of physical fitness might help to foster mental health, especially in girls.
AdewaleAJHaydukLEstabrooksCA, et al. (2007) Understanding hierarchical linear models: Applications in nursing research. Nursing Research56(4): 40–46.
2.
AllevaJMMartijnCVan BreukelenGJP, et al. (2015) Expand your horizon: A programme that improves body image and reduces self-objectification by training women to focus on body functionality. Body Image15: 81–89.
3.
AndrewRTiggemannMClarkL (2016) Predictors and health-related outcomes of positive body image in adolescent girls: A prospective study. Developmental Psychology52(3): 463–474.
4.
BacevicieneMJankauskieneR (2020) Associations between body appreciation and disordered eating in a large sample of adolescents. Nutrients12(3): 752.
5.
BacevicieneMJankauskieneREmeljanovasA (2019) Self-perception of physical activity and fitness is related to lower psychosomatic health symptoms in adolescents with unhealthy lifestyles. BMC Public Health19(1): 980.
6.
BanduraA (2010) Self-Efficacy. The Corsini Encyclopedia of Psychology, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., USA.
7.
BiddleSJHCiaccioniSThomasG, et al. (2019) Physical activity and mental health in children and adolescents: An updated review of reviews and an analysis of causality. Psychology of Sport and Exercise42: 146–155.
8.
BurnetteCBKwitowskiMAMazzeoSE (2017) “I don’t need people to tell me i’m pretty on social media:” A qualitative study of social media and body image in early adolescent girls. Body Image23: 14–125.
9.
CashTFFlemingEC (2002) The impact of body image experiences: Development of the body image quality of life inventory. International Journal of Eating Disorders31(4): 455–460.
10.
CohenJ (1992) A power primer. Psychological Bulletin112(1): 155–159.
11.
ColeTJLobsteinT (2012) Extended international (IOTF) body mass index cut-offs for thinness, overweight and obesity. Pediatric Obesity7(4): 284–294.
12.
CollinsHBoothJNDuncanA, et al. (2019) The effect of resistance training interventions on ‘the self’ in youth: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Sports Med Open5: 29.
13.
CoxAETylkaTL (2020) A conceptual model describing mechanisms for how yoga practice may support positive embodiment. Journal of Eating Disorders28(4): 376–399.
14.
CoxAEUllrich-FrenchSHoweHS, et al. (2017) A pilot yoga physical education curriculum to promote positive body image. Body Image23: 1–8.
DuchesneADionJLalandeD, et al. (2017) Body dissatisfaction and psychological distress in adolescents: Is self-esteem a mediator?Journal of Health Psychology22(12): 1563–1569.
17.
Fernández-BustosJGInfantes-PaniaguaÁCuevasR, et al. (2019) Effect of physical activity on self-concept: Theoretical model on the mediation of body image and physical self-concept in adolescents. Frontiers in Psychology10: 1537.
18.
FoxKRCorbinCB (1989) The physical self-perception profile: Development and preliminary validation. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology11(4): 408–430.
19.
GodinSShephardJ (1985) A simple method to assess exercise behavior in the community. Canadian Journal of Applied Sport Sciences10: 141–146.
20.
Hartman-MunickSGordonARGussC (2020) Adolescent body image: Influencing factors and the clinician’s role. Current Opinion in Pediatrics32(4): 455–460.
21.
HomanKJTylkaTL (2014) Appearance-based exercise motivation moderates the relationship between exercise frequency and positive body image. Body Image11: 101–108.
22.
JankauskieneRBacevicieneMTrinkunieneL (2020) Examining body appreciation and disordered eating in adolescents of different sports practice: Cross-sectional study. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health17(11): 4044.
23.
LemoineJEKonradsenHLunde JensenA, et al. (2018) Factor structure and psychometric properties of the body appreciation scale-2 among adolescents and young adults in Danish, Portuguese, and Swedish. Body Image26: 1–9.
24.
LubansDRichardsJHillmanC, et al. (2016) Physical activity for cognitive and mental health in youth: A systematic review of mechanisms. Pediatrics138(3): e20161642.
25.
MahloLTiggemannM (2016) Yoga and positive body image: A test of the embodiment model. Body Image18: 135–142.
26.
MarksDF (2015) Homeostatic theory of obesity. Health Psychology Open2(1): 2055102915590692.
27.
Marta-SimoesJTylkaTFerreiraC (2020) Potential contributing roles of early affiliative menmories, social safeness and body appreciation to adolescents’ well-being. Journal of Health Psychology1–11.
28.
MenzelJEKrawczykRThompsonJK (2011) Attitudinal Assessment of Body Image for Adolescents and Adults. New York, NY: The Guilford Press, pp.154–169.
29.
MenzelJEThompsonJKLevineMP (2019) Development and validation of the physical activity body experiences questionnaire. Bulletin of the Menninger Clinic83(1): 53–83.
30.
NoordstarJJvan der NetJJakS, et al. (2016) Global self-esteem, perceived athletic competence, and physical activity in children: A longitudinal cohort study. Psychology of Sport and Exercise22: 83–90.
31.
PiranN (2019) The experience of embodiment construct: Reflecting the quality of embodied lives. In: TylkaTLPiranN (eds.) Handbook of Positive Body Image and Embodiment: Constructs, Protective Factors, and Interventions. New York, NY: Oxford University Press, pp.11–21.
32.
RockwoodNJHayesAF (2020) Mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: Regression-based approaches for clinical research. In: WrightAGCHallquistMN (eds.) The Cambridge Handbook of Research Methods in Clinical Psychology. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp.396–414.
33.
RosenbergM (1979) Conceiving the Self. New York, NY: Basic Books.
34.
RuegseggerNBoothFW (2018) Health benefits of exercise. Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Medicine8(7): 1–15.
35.
Ruiz-MonteroPJChiva-BartollOBaena-ExtremeraA, et al. (2020) Gender, physical self-perception and overall physical fitness in secondary school students: A multiple mediation model. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health17(18). https://www.mdpi.com/about/announcements/784
36.
SabistonCMPilaEVaniM, et al. (2019) Body image, physical activity, and sport: A scoping review. Psychology of Sport and Exercise42: 48–57.
37.
SonstroemRJMorganWP (1989) Exercise and self-esteem: Rationale and model. Medicine and Science in Sports and Exercise21(3): 329–337.
38.
SonstroemRJHarlowLLJosephsL (1994) Exercise and self-esteem: Validity of model expansion and exercise associations. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology16(1): 29–42.
39.
SoulliardZAKauffmanAAFitterman-HarrisH, et al. (2019) Examining positive body image, sport confidence, flow state, and subjective performance among student athletes and non-athletes. Body Image28: 93–100.
40.
SouthallJEOkelyADSteeleJR (2004) Actual and perceived physical competence in overweight and nonoverweight children. Pediatric Exercise Science16(1): 15–24.
41.
SpessatoBCGabbardCRobinsonL, et al. (2013) Body mass index, perceived and actual physical competence: The relationship among young children. Child: Care, Health and Development39(6): 845–850.
42.
StreinerDNormanGCairneyJ (1989) Health Measurement Scales: A Practical Guide to their Development and Use. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Sundgot-BorgenCStenlingARosenvingeJH, et al. (2020) The Norwegian healthy body image intervention promotes positive embodiment through improved self-esteem. Body Image35: 84–95.
45.
SwamiVWeisLBarronD, et al. (2018) Positive body image is positively associated with hedonic (emotional) and eudaimonic (psychological and social) well-being in British adults. The Journal of Social Psychology158(5): 541–552.
46.
TylkaTLWood-BarcalowN (2015a) The body appreciation scale-2: Item refinement and psychometric evaluation. Body Image12: 53–67.
47.
TylkaTLWood-BarcalowNL (2015b) What is and what is not positive body image? Conceptual foundations and construct definition. Body Image14: 118–129.
48.
Zamani SaniSHFathirezaieZBrandS, et al. (2016) Physical activity and self-esteem: Testing direct and indirect relationships associated with psychological and physical mechanisms. Neuropsychiatric Disease and Treatment12: 2617–2625.
Supplementary Material
Please find the following supplemental material available below.
For Open Access articles published under a Creative Commons License, all supplemental material carries the same license as the article it is associated with.
For non-Open Access articles published, all supplemental material carries a non-exclusive license, and permission requests for re-use of supplemental material or any part of supplemental material shall be sent directly to the copyright owner as specified in the copyright notice associated with the article.
