The development and use of validated processes of change (POC) measures have received little attention in the literature despite their importance in the Transtheoretical Model. Using survey data (N = 2909), we examined the construct validity of a 22-item mammography POC scale by testing for factorial validity and factorial invariance across stage of change. We also used MANOVA with Tukey post-hoc tests to confirm stage differences in POC use (concurrent validity). Our results confirm the a priori correlated four-factor structure of this scale and provide some support for the measurement equivalence of this scale across stage, supporting comparisons of POC use across stage.
Bowen, D.J., Meischke, H., & Tomoyasu, N. ( 1994). Preliminary evaluation of the processes of changing to a low-fat diet. Health Education Research, 9, 85-94.
4.
Breen, N., Cronin, A., Meissner, H.I., Taplin, S.H., Tangka, F.K., Tiro, J.A. et al. (2007). Reported drop in mammography: Is this cause for concern? Cancer, 109, 2405-2409.
5.
Byrne, B.M. ( 2001). Application 6: Testing for invariant factorial structure of a theoretical construct (First-order CFA model). In Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (pp. 200-225). London Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
6.
Champion, V.L., Monahan, P.O., Springston, J.K., Russell, K., Zollinger, T.W., Saywell, R.M., Jr et al. (2008). Measuring mammography and breast cancer beliefs in AfricanAmerican women. Journal of Health Psychology, 13, 827-837.
7.
Champion, V.L., Skinner, C.S., Menon, U., Seshadri, R., Anzalone, D.C., & Rawl, S.M. ( 2002). Comparisons of tailored mammography interventions at two months postintervention. Annals of Behavioral Medecine , 24, 211-218.
8.
Clark, M.A., Rakowski, W., & Bonacore, L.B. (2003). Repeat mammography: Prevalence estimates and considerations for assessment. Annals of Behavioral Medecine, 26, 201-211.
9.
Del Junco, D.J., Vernon, S.W., Coan, S.P., Tiro, J.A., Bastian, L.A., Savas, L.S. et al. (2008). Promoting regular mammography screening. I. A systematic assessment of validity in a randomized trial. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 100, 333-346.
10.
DiClemente, C.C. ( 2003). Addiction and change: How additions develop and addicted people recover. New York: Guilford Press.
11.
DiClemente, C.C., & Prochaska, J.O. (1982). Self-change and therapy change of smoking behavior: A comparison of processes of change in cessation and maintenance. Addictive Behaviors, 7, 133-142.
12.
DiClemente, C.C., Prochaska, J.O., Fairhurst, S.K., Velicer, W.F., Velasquez, M.M., & Rossi, J.S. ( 1991). The process of smoking cessation: An analysis of pre-contemplation, contemplation, and preparation stages of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 59, 295-304.
13.
Enders, C.K., & Bandalos, D.L. (2001). The relative performance of full information maximum likelihood estimation for missing data in structural equation models. Structural Equation Modeling, 8, 430-457.
14.
Fava, J.L., Velicer, W.F., & Prochaska, J.O. (1995). Applying the Transtheoretical Model to a representative sample of smokers. Addictive Behaviors , 20, 189-203.
15.
Gregorich, S.E. ( 2006). Do self-report instruments allow meaningful comparisons across diverse population groups? Testing measurement invariance using the confirmatory factor analysis framework. Medical Care, 44, S78-S94.
16.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. ( 1995). Evaluating model fit. In Structural equation modeling: Concepts. issues, and applications (pp. 76-99). London : SAGE.
17.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P.M. ( 1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1-55.
18.
Humphrey, L.L., Helfand, M., Chan, B.K., & Woolf, S.H. ( 2002). Breast cancer screening: A summary of the evidence for the U.S. Preventive Services Task Force. Annals of Internal Medicine, 137, 347-360.
19.
Kline, R.R. ( 2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling . New York: Guilford Press .
20.
MacCallum, R.C., & Austin, J.T. ( 2000). Applications of structural equation modeling in psychological research. Annual Review of Psychology, 51, 201-226.
21.
Marcus, B.H., Rossi, J.S., Selby, V.C., Niaura, R.S., & Abrams, D.B. ( 1992). The stages and processes of exercise adoption and maintenance in a worksite sample. Health Psychology, 11, 386-395.
22.
Marsh, H.W., Hau, K., Balla, J.R., & Grayson, D. ( 1998). Is more ever too much? The number of indicators per factor in confirmatory factor analysis. Multivariate Behavioral Research , 33, 181-220.
23.
Nunnally, J.C. ( 1994). Psychometric theory. New York : McGraw-Hill.
24.
O’Connor, E.A., Carbonari, J.P., & DiClemente, C.C. (1996). Gender and smoking cessation: A factor structure comparison of processes of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 64, 130-138.
25.
Prochaska, J.O., & DiClemente, C.C. (1983). Stages and processes of self-change of smoking: Toward an integrative model of change. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 390-395.
26.
Prochaska, J.O., Velicer, W.F., DiClemente, C.C., & Fava, J. ( 1988). Measuring processes of change: Applications to the cessation of smoking. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology , 56, 520-528.
27.
Rakowski, W., Dube, C.A., & Goldstein, M.G. (1996a). Considerations for extending the Transtheoretical Model of behavior change to screening mammography. Health Education Research, 11, 77-96.
28.
Rakowski, W., Dube, C.E., Marcus, B.H., Prochaska, J.O., Velicer, W.F., & Abrams, D.B. ( 1992). Assessing elements of women’s decisions about mammography . Health Psychology, 11, 111-118.
29.
Rakowski, W., Ehrich, B., Dube, C.E., Pearlman, D.N., Goldstein, M.G., Peterson, K.K. et al. (1996b). Screening mammography and constructs from the Transtheoretical Model: Associations using two definitions of the stages-of-adoption . Annals of Behavioral Medicine, 18, 91-100.
30.
Rakowski, W., Ehrich, B., Goldstein, M.G., Rimer, B.K., Pearlman, D.N., Clark, M.A. et al. (1998). Increasing mammography among women aged 40-74 by use of a stage-matched, tailored intervention. Preventive Medicine, 27, 748-756.
31.
Smith, R.A., Saslow, D., Sawyer, K.A., Burke, W., Costanza, M.E., Evans, W.P., III et al. (2003). American Cancer Society guidelines for breast cancer screening: Update 2003. CA: A Cancer Journal for Clinicians , 53, 141-169.
32.
Spencer, L., Pagell, F., & Adams, T. ( 2005). Applying the Transtheoretical Model to cancer screening behavior. American Journal of Health Behavior, 29, 36-56.
33.
Tiro, J.A., Diamond, P.M., Perz, C.A., Fernandez, M., Rakowski, W., DiClemente, C.C. et al. (2005). Validation of scales measuring attitudes and norms related to mammography screening in women veterans. Health Psychology, 24, 555-566.
34.
Vandenberg, R.J., & Lance, C.E. ( 2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3, 4-69.
35.
Vernon, S.W., del Junco, D.J., Tiro, J.A., Coan, S.P., Perz, C.A., Bastian, L.A. et al. (2008). Promoting regular mammography screening. II. Results from a randomized controlled trial in U.S. women veterans. Journal of the National Cancer Institute, 100, 347-358.
36.
Wadsworth, D.D., & Hallam, J.S. ( 2007). The use of the processes of change across the exercise stages of change and across varying intensities and frequencies of exercise behavior. American Journal of Health Promotion, 21, 426-429.
