This study examined a stress/coping model of adjustment in early caregiving. It was hypothesized that better adjustment would be related to higher social support and approach coping, and lower stress appraisals and avoidant coping. One hundred young carers aged 10–25 years completed questionnaires. Predictors included choice in caregiving, social support, stress appraisal and coping. Dependent variables were global distress and positive outcomes (life satisfaction, positive affect, benefits). Correlations supported all hypothesized relations between the stress/coping predictors and adjustment outcomes. Regression analyses showed social support as the strongest predictor of adjustment, whereas coping and choice in caregiving emerged as weaker predictors and stress appraisal was unrelated to adjustment. The stress/coping framework and findings have the potential to inform interventions designed to promote well-being in young carers.
Aldridge, J. , & Becker, S. (1993a). Children who care: Inside the world of young carers. Loughborough:Young Carers Research Group .
2.
Aldridge, J. , & Becker, S. (1993b). Punishing children for caring: The hidden cost of young carers . Children and Society, 7(4), 376–387 .
3.
Aldridge, J. , & Becker, S. (1994). My child; my carer: The parents' perspective. Loughborough: Young Carers Research Group .
4.
Aldwin, C. M. , & Revenson, T. A. (1987). Does coping help? A reexamination of the relation between coping and mental health . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 53(2), 337–348 .
5.
Alvord, M. K. , & Grados, J. J. (2005). Enhancing resilience in children: A proactive approach . Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 36(3), 238–245 .
6.
Armistead, L. , Klein, K. , & Forehand, R. (1995). Parental physical illness and child functioning . Clinical Psychology Review, 15(5), 409–422 .
7.
Australian Bureau of Statistics . (2003). Disability, ageing and carers: Summary of findings. Australia: Australian Bureau of Statistics .
8.
Baker, L. A. , Cesa, I. L. , Gatz, M. , & Mellins, C. (1992). Genetic and environmental influences on positive and negative affect: Support for a two-factor theory . Psychology and Aging, 7(1), 158–163 .
9.
Banks, P. , Cogan, N. , Riddell, S. , Deeley, S. , Hill, M. , & Tisdall, K. (2002). Does the covert nature of caring prohibit the development of effective services for young carers?British Journal of Guidance and Counselling, 30(3), 229–246 .
10.
Beach, D. L. (1997). Family caregiving: The positive impact on adolescent relationships . The Gerontologist, 37, 233–238 .
11.
Becker, S. (Ed.). (1995). Young carers in Europe: An exploratory cross-national study in Britain, France, Sweden, and Germany. Leicestershire: Young Carers Research Group .
12.
Bradburn, N. M. (1969). The structure of psychological well-being. Chicago, IL: Aldine Publishing Company .
13.
Bursnall, S., Pakenham, K. I., Cannon, T., & Murphy, P. (forthcoming). Understanding the experiences and needs of young people whose parent has an illness or disability. Manuscript submitted for publication.
14.
Campbell, D. T. , & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and discriminant validation by the multi-trait multi-method matrix . Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81–105 .
15.
Carers Australia . (2001). Young carers research report: Final report. Canberra: Commonwealth of Australia .
16.
Carver, C. S. , Scheier, M. F. , & Weintraub, J. K. (1989). Assessing coping strategies: A theoretically based approach . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 56(2), 267–283 .
17.
Compas, B. E. , Worsham, N. L. , Epping-Jordan, J. E. , Grant, K. E. , Mireault, G. , Howell, D. C. et al. (1994). When mom or dad has cancer: Markers of psychological distress in cancer patients, spouses and children . Health Psychology, 13(6), 507–515 .
18.
Compas, B. E. , Worsham, N. L. , Ey, S. , & Howell, D. C. (1996). When mom or dad has cancer: II. Coping, cognitive appraisals, and psychological distress in children of cancer patients . Health Psychology, 15(3), 167–175 .
19.
Connor-Smith, J. K. , Compas, B. E. , Wadsworth, M. E. , Thomsen, A. H. , & Saltzman, H. (2000). Responses to stress in adolescence: Measurement of coping and involuntary stress responses . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 68, 976–992 .
20.
Conrad, M. , & Hammen, C. (1993). Protective and resource factors in high and low-risk children: A comparison of children with unipolar, bipolar, medically ill, and normal mothers . Development and Psychopathology, 5, 593–607 .
21.
Coon, D. W. , Ory, M. G. , & Schulz, R. (2003). Family care-givers: Enduring and emergent themes. In D. W. Coon , D. Gallaher-Thompson , & L. W. Thompson (Eds.), Innovative interventions to reduce dementia caregiver distress: A clinical guide (pp. 3–27). New York: Springer Publishing .
22.
Dearden, C. , & Becker, S. (1995). Young carers: The facts. Loughborough University:Young Carers Research Group .
23.
Dearden, C. , & Becker, S. (1998). Young carers in the United Kingdom: A profile. London: Carers National Association .
24.
Dearden, C. , & Becker, S. (2000). Growing up caring: Vulnerability and transition to adulthood—young carers' experiences. Leicester: Youth Work Press .
25.
Dearden, C. , & Becker, S. (2004). Young carers in the UK: The 2004 report. London: Carers UK .
26.
Derogatis, L. R. (2000). Brief symptom inventory 18: Administration, scoring and procedures manual. Minneapolis, MN: National Computer Systems, Inc.
27.
Derogatis, L. R. , & Spencer, P. M. (1982). Administration and procedures: BSI manual—Baltimore, MD: Clinical Psychometric Research .
28.
Fava, G. A. , & Ruini, C. (2003). Development and characteristics of a well-being enhancing psychotherapeutic strategy: Well-being therapy . Journal of Behavior Therapy and Experimental Psychiatry, 34, 45–63 .
29.
Folkman, S. , & Moskowitz, J. T. (2000). Positive affect and the other side of coping . American Psychologist, 55(6), 647–654 .
30.
Frank, J. (1995). Couldn't care more: A study of young carers and their needs. London: The Children's Society .
31.
Goode, K. T. , Haley, W. E. , Roth, D. L. , & Ford, G. R. (1998). Predicting longitudinal changes in caregiver physical and mental health: A stress process model . Health Psychology, 17(2), 190–198 .
32.
Grant, K. E. , & Compas, B. E. (1995). Stress and anxious-depressed symptoms among adolescents: Searching for mechanisms of risk . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 63(6), 1015–1021 .
33.
Kornblum, H. , & Anderson, B. (1985). Parents with insulin dependent diabetes: Impact on family and child development. In S. Thurman (Ed.), Children of handicapped parents: Research in clinical perspectives (pp. 97–109). London: Academic Press .
34.
Lackey, N. R. , & Gates, M. F. (2001). Adults' recollections of their experiences as young caregivers of family members with chronic physical illnesses . Journal of Advanced Nursing, 34(3), 320–328 .
35.
Langrock, A. M. , Compas, B. E. , Keller, G. , Merchant, M. J. , & Copeland, M. E. (2002). Coping with the stress of parental depression: Parents' reports of children's coping, emotional, and behavioral problems . Journal of Clinical Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 312–324 .
36.
Lazarus, R. S. , & Folkman, S. (1984). Stress, appraisal and coping. New York: Springer Publishing Company .
37.
Lester, P. , Stein, J. , & Bursch, B. (2003). Developmental predictors of somatic symptoms in adolescents of parents with HIV: A 12-month follow-up . Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 24(4), 242–250 .
38.
McCausland, J. , & Pakenham, K. I. (2003). Investigation of the benefits of HIV/AIDS caregiving and relations among caregiving adjustment, benefit finding, and stress and coping variables . AIDS Care, 15(6), 853–869 .
39.
Milan, S. , Ickovics, J. R. , Kershaw, T. , Lewis, J. , Meade, C. , & Ethier, K. (2004). Prevalence, course, and predictors of emotional distress in pregnant and parenting adolescents . Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 72(2), 328–340 .
40.
Moos, R. H. , & Billings, A. G. (1982). Conceptualising and measuring coping resources and processes. In L. Goldberger & S. Breznitz (Eds.), Handbook of stress: Theoretical and clinical aspects (pp. 212–230). New York: Free Press .
41.
Newman, T. (2002). ‘Young carers’and disabled parents: Time for a change of direction?Disability and Society, 17(6), 613–625 .
42.
Pakenham, K. I. (1998). Couple coping and adjustment to multiple sclerosis in care receiver–carer dyads . Family Relations: Interdisciplinary Journal of Applied Family Studies, 47(3), 269–277 .
43.
Pakenham, K. I. (2001). Application of a stress and coping model to caregiving in multiple sclerosis . Psychology, Health and Medicine, 6(1), 13–27 .
44.
Pakenham, K. I. (2002). Development of a measure of coping with multiple sclerosis caregiving . Psychology and Health, 17(1), 97–118 .
45.
Pakenham, K. I. (2005a). Relations between coping and positive and negative outcomes in carers of persons with multiple sclerosis . Journal of Clinical Psychology in Medical Settings, 12(1), 25–38 .
46.
Pakenham, K. I. (2005b). The positive impact of multiple sclerosis on carers: Associations between carer benefit finding and positive and negative adjustment domains . Disability and Rehabilitation, 27(17), 985–997 .
47.
Pakenham, K. I. , Bursnall, S. , Chiu, J. , Cannon, T. , & Okochi, M. (2006). The psychosocial impact of caregiving on young people who have a parent with an illness or disability: Comparisons between young caregivers and non-caregivers . Rehabilitation Psychology, 51(2), 113–126 .
48.
Pakenham, K. I. , Sofronoff, K. , & Samios, C. (2004). Finding meaning in parenting a child with Asperger syndrome: Correlates of sense making and benefit finding . Research in Developmental Disabilities, 25, 245–264 .
49.
Pavot, W. , & Diener, E. (1993). Review of the satisfaction with life scale . Psychological Assessment, 5(2), 164–172 .
50.
Sarason, I. G. , Sarason, B. R. , Shearin, E. N. , & Pierce, G. R. (1987). A brief measure of social support: Practical and theoretical implications . Journal of Social and Personal Relationships, 4, 497–510 .
51.
Segal, J. , & Simkins, J. (1993). My mum needs me: Helping children with ill or disabled parents. Hamondsworth: Penguin .
52.
Shek, D. (1999). Individual and dyadic predictors of family functioning in a Chinese context . American Journal of Family Therapy, 27(1), 49–61 .
53.
Skinner, E. , Edge, K. , Altman, J. , & Sherwood, H. (2003). Searching for the structure of coping: A review and critique of category systems for classifying ways of coping . Psychological Bulletin, 129(2), 216–269 .
54.
Terry, D. J. , & Hynes, G. J. (1998). Adjustment to a low-control situation: Reexamining the role of coping responses . Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74(4), 1078–1092 .
55.
Worsham, N. L. , Compas, B. E. , & Sydney, E. Y. (1997). Children's coping with parental illness. In S. A. Wolchik & I. N. Sandler (Eds.), Handbook of Children's Coping: Linking Theory and Intervention(pp. 195–213). New York: Plenum Press .
