Depressive symptoms play a major role in cigarette smoking among US White adults, but it is not known if this holds for US Blacks. Hence, the relationship between depressive symptoms and smoking was examined among 520 US Black adults sampled from 10 randomlyselected community census tracts. Results revealed no relationship between depression and smoking, but education levels did contribute; Black high school drop-outs were four times more likely than Black college graduates to be smokers.
Acierno, R. A., Kilpatrick, D. G., Resnick, H. S., Saunders, B. E., & Best, C. L. (1996). Violent assault, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression: risk factors for cigarette use among adult women. Behavior Modification, 20(4), 363–384.
2.
Anda, R. F., Williamson, D. F., Escobedo, L. G., Mast, E. E., Giovino, G. A., & Remington, P. L. (1990). Depression and the dynamics of smoking: a national perspective. Journal of the American Medical Association, 264(12), 1541–1545.
3.
Beck, A. T., Ward, C. H., Mendelson, M., Mock, J. E., & Erbaugh, J. (1961). An inventory for measuring depression. Archives of General Psychiatry, 4, 561–571.
4.
Benowitz, N. L., Perez-Stable, E. J., Fong, I., Modin, G., Herrera, B., & Jacob, P. (1999). Ethnic differences in N-glucuronidation of nictoine and cotinine. Journal of Pharmacology and Experimental Therapy, 291, 1196–1203.
5.
Benson, V. & Marano, M. (1995). Current estimates from the National Health Interview Survey, 1993. Vital Health Statistics, 10, 190-190.
6.
National Center for Health Statistics. Bock, B. C., Goldstein, M. G., & Marcus, B. H. (1996). Depression following smoking cessation in women. Journal of Substance Abuse, 8(1), 137–144.
7.
Borrelli, B., Bock, B., King, T., Pinto, B., & Marcus, B. H. (1996). The impact of depression on smoking cessation in women. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 12(5), 378–387.
8.
Breslau, N., Kilbey, M. M., & Andreski, P. (1991). Nicotine dependence, major depression, and anxiety in young adults. Archives of General Psychiatry, 48, 1069–1074.
9.
Centers for Disease Control (1990). Cigarette brand use among adult smokers. Morbidity & Mortality Weekly Reports, 39, 665, 671–673.
10.
Centers for Disease Control (1992). African Americans and smoking: at a glance. Hyattsville, MD: US Public Health Service, Publication No. 460051.
11.
Chiles, J. A., Benjamin, G. A., & Cahn, T.S. (1990). Who smokes? Why? Psychiatric aspects of continued cigarette usage among lawyers in Washington state. Comprehensive Psychiatry, 31(2), 176–184.
12.
Covey, L. S., Glassman, A. H., & Stetner, F. (1998). Cigarette smoking and major depression. Journal of Addictive Diseases, 17(1), 35–46.
13.
Derogatis, L. R., Lipman, R. S., Rickles, K., Ulenhuth, E., & Covi, L. (1974). The Hopkins Symptom Checklist: a self-report symptom inventory. Behavioral Science, 19, 1–15.
14.
Garfinkel, L. (1997). Trends in cigarette smoking in the United States. Preventive Medicine, 26, 447–450.
15.
Glassman, A. H., Helzer, J. E., Covey, L. S., Cottler, L. B., Stetner, F., Tipp, J. E., & Johnson, J. (1990). Smoking, smoking cessation, and major depression. Journal of the American Medical Association, 264(12), 1546–1549.
16.
Hemenway, D., Solnick, S. J., & Colditz, G. A. (1993). Smoking and suicide among nurses. American Journal of Public Health, 83(2), 249–251.
17.
Klonoff, E. A. & Landrine, H. (1996). Acculturation and cigarette smoking among African-American adults. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 19(5), 501–514.
18.
Klonoff, E. A. & Landrine, H. (1999). Acculturation and cigarette smoking among African Americans: Replication and implications for prevention and cessation programs. Journal of Behavioral Medicine, 22(2), 195–204.
19.
Landrine, H., & Klonoff, E. A. (1996). African-American acculturation: deconstructing ‘race’ and reviving culture. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
20.
Landrine, H. & Klonoff, E. A. (1997). Discrimination against women: prevalence, consequences, remedies. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
21.
Landrine, H. & Klonoff, E. A. (2000a). Racial discrimination and cigarette smoking among Blacks: findings from two studies.Ethnicity and Disease, 10(2), 195–202.
22.
Landrine, H. & Klonoff, E. A. (2000b). Racial segregation and cigarette smoking among Blacks: findings at the individual level. Journal of Health Psychology, 5(2), 211–219.
23.
Landrine, H., Klonoff, E. A., Gibbs, J., Manning, V., & Lund, M. (1995). Physical and psychiatric correlates of gender discrimination: an application of the Schedule of Sexist Events. Psychology of Women Quarterly, 19(4), 473–492.
24.
Patton, G. C., Carlin, J. B., Coffey, C., Wolfe, R., Hibbert, M., & Bowers, G. (1998). Depression, anxiety and smoking initiation: a prospective study over three years. American Journal of Public Health, 88(10), 1518–1522.
25.
Radloff, L. S. (1977). The CES-D Scale: a self-report depression scale for research in the general population. Applied Psychological Measurement, 1, 385–401.
26.
Rogers, R. R. & Crank, J. (1988). Ethnic differences in smoking patterns: findings from the National Health Interview Survey. Public Health Reports, 103, 387–392.
27.
Stage, K. B., Glassman, A. H., & Covey, L. S. (1996). Depression after smoking cessation: case reports. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 57(10), 467–469.
28.
Swan, G. E., Ward, M. M., & Jack, L. M. (1996). Abstinence effects as predictors of 28-day relapse in smokers. Addictive Behavior, 21(4), 481–490.
29.
Tamburrino, M. B., Lynch, D. J., Nagel, R. W., Stadler, N., & Pauling, T. (1994). Screening women in family practice settings: associations between depression and smoking cigarettes. Family Practice Research Journal, 14(4), 333–337.
30.
Tsoh, J. Y., Humfleet, G. L., Munoz, R. F., Reus, V. I., Hartz, D. T., & Hall, S. M. (2000). Development of major depression after treatment for smoking cessation. American Journal of Psychiatry, 157(3), 368–374.
31.
US Department of Health & Human Services (DHHS) (1998). Tobacco use among US racial/ethnic minority groups. Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Office of Smoking and Health.
32.
Whalen, C. K., Jamner, D., Henker, B., & Delfino, R. J. (2001). Smoking and moods in adolescents with depressive and aggressive dispositions. Health Psychology, 20(2), 99–111.
33.
Williams, C. D., & Adams-Campbell, L. L. (2000). Addictive behaviors and depression among African Americans residing in a public housing community. Addictive Behaviors, 25(1), 45–46.