This cross-sectional study aimed to evaluate depression and anxiety symptoms of the children/grandchildren of COVID-19 patients, children/grandchildren of healthcare workers who have not infected COVID-19, and children/grandchildren of the control group. Parent and children’s perception about COVID-19–related stigma is also investigated and compared between groups. The perception about COVID-19–related stigma between different age and gender groups among children also investigated and compared. The mental health of the 71 participants aged 6–18 years was evaluated via a telemedicine-based semi-structured interview between March and April 2020. Children’s Depression Inventory (CDI), the Screen for Child Anxiety-Related Emotional Disorders (SCARED), and COVID-19–Related Stigma Form were administered to the participants. A significant negative correlation was found between age and separation anxiety disorder (p = .005) and a significant positive correlation was found between age and generalized anxiety disorder (p = .035) in the SCARED-Child report. Generalized anxiety disorder was found to be higher in females compared to males. A significant difference was found between the groups of parents in the COVID-19–Related Stigma Form. Patients infected with COVID-19, healthcare workers, and the control group have different perceptions about COVID-19–related stigma. The age of the children have an impact on stigma perceptions. Anxiety symptoms of children affected by age and gender. Future studies are recommended to determine the other factors associated with perceptions about COVID-19–related stigma among children and parents.
BakiO.ErdoganA.KantarciO.AkisikG.KayaalpL.YalcinkayaC. (2004). Anxiety and depression in children with epilepsy and their mothers. Epilepsy & Behavior, 5(6), 958–964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yebeh.2004.08.016
2.
BaldassarreA.GiorgiG.AlessioF.LulliL.ArcangeliG.MucciN. (2020). Stigma and discrimination (SAD) at the time of the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 17(17), 6341. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17176341
3.
BatesL. C.ZieffG.StanfordK.MooreJ. B.KerrZ. Y.HansonE. D.Barone GibbsB.KlineC. E.StonerL. (2020). COVID-19 impact on behaviors across the 24-hour day in children and adolescents: Physical activity, sedentary behavior, and sleep. Children (Basel, Switzerland), 7(9), 138. https://doi.org/10.3390/children7090138
4.
BeesdoK.KnappeS.PineD. S. (2009). Anxiety and anxiety disorders in children and adolescents: Developmental issues and implications for DSM-V. Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 32(3), 483–524. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psc.2009.06.002
5.
BirmaherB.BrentD. A.ChiappettaL.BridgeJ.MongaS.BaugherM. (1999). Psychometric properties of the screen for child anxiety related emotional disorders (SCARED): A replication study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 38(10), 1230–1236. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199910000-00011
6.
BrooksS. K.WebsterR. K.SmithL. E.WoodlandL.WesselyS.GreenbergN.RubinG. J. (2020). The psychological impact of quarantine and how to reduce it: Rapid review of the evidence. The Lancet, 395(10227), 912–920. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30460-8
7.
CopelandW. E.AngoldA.ShanahanL.CostelloE. J. (2014). Longitudinal patterns of anxiety from childhood to adulthood: The great smoky mountains study. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 53(1), 21–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2013.09.017
8.
CostelloE. J.MustilloS.ErkanliA.KeelerG.AngoldA. (2003). Prevalence and development of psychiatric disorders in childhood and adolescence. Archives of General Psychiatry, 60(8), 837. https://doi.org/10.1001/archpsyc.60.8.837
DikeçG.BilaçÖ.UzunoğluG. (2020). Who stigmatizes more? adolescents with mental disorders or their parents?The Journal of Dr Behcet Uz Children S Hospital, 10(1), 8–14. https://doi.org/10.5222/buchd.2020.24993
11.
DuanL.ShaoX.WangY.HuangY.MiaoJ.YangX.ZhuG. (2020). An investigation of mental health status of children and adolescents in china during the outbreak of COVID-19. Journal of Affective Disorders, 275, 112-118. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.029.
FegertJ. M.VitielloB.PlenerP. L.ClemensV. (2020). Challenges and burden of the Coronavirus 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic for child and adolescent mental health: A narrative review to highlight clinical and research needs in the acute phase and the long return to normality. Child and Adolescent Psychiatry and Mental Health, 14(1), 20. https://doi.org/10.1186/s13034-020-00329-3.
14.
GöklerB.ÜnalF.PehlivanturkB.Çengel KültürE.AkdemirD.TanerY. (2004). Okul çaği çocuklari için duygulanim bozukluklari ve şizofreni görüşme çizelgesi -şimdi ve yaşam boyu şekli- türkçe uyarlamasinin geçerlik ve güvenirliği [reliability and validity of schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school age children—present and lifetime version—turkish version (k-sads-pl-t)]. Çocuk Ve Gençlik Ruh Sağliği Dergisi, 11(3), 109–116
15.
GuessoumS. B.LachalJ.RadjackR.CarretierE.MinassianS.BenoitL.MoroM. R. (2020). Adolescent psychiatric disorders during the COVID-19 pandemic and lockdown. Psychiatry Research, 291, 113264. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2020.113264.
16.
HacimusalarY.KahveA. C.YasarA. B.AydinM. S. (2020). Anxiety and hopelessness levels in COVID-19 pandemic: A comparative study of healthcare professionals and other community sample in Turkey. Journal of Psychiatric Research, 129, 181-188. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychires.2020.07.024.
17.
HawesM. T.SzenczyA. K.KleinD. N.HajcakG.NelsonB. D. (2021). Increases in depression and anxiety symptoms in adolescents and young adults during the COVID-19 pandemic. Psychological Medicine, 1–9. Advance online publication. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291720005358
18.
KarabekiroğluK.Cakin-MemikN.Ozcan-OzelO.TorosF.ÖztopD.ÖzbaranB.Cengel-KulturE.AkbaşS.NurTaşdemirG.AyazM.AydınC.BildikT.ErermişS.YamanA. K. (2009). Stigmatization and misinterpretations on ADHD and autism: A multi-central study with elementary school teachers and parents. Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 12(2), 79–89
19.
Karaceylan ÇakmakçıF. (2004). Çocuklarda anksiyete bozukluklarını tarama ölçeği geçerlik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Department of child and adolescent psychiatry Kocaeli University, Faculty of Medicine.
20.
KaufmanJ.BirmaherB.BrentD.RaoU.FlynnC.MoreciP.WilliamsonD.RyanN. (1997). Schedule for affective disorders and schizophrenia for school-age children-present and lifetime version (K-SADS-PL): Initial reliability and validity data. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 36(7), 980–988. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-199707000-00021
21.
KaushikA.KostakiE.KyriakopoulosM. (2016). The stigma of mental illness in children and adolescents: A systematic review. Psychiatry Research, 243, 469-494. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2016.04.042.
22.
KovacsM. (1981). Rating scales to assess depression in school-aged children. Acta Paedopsychiatrica, 46(5–6), 305–315.
23.
LaiJ.MaS.WangY.CaiZ.HuJ.WeiN.WuJ.DuH.ChenT.LiR.TanH.KangL.YaoL.HuangM.WangH.WangG.LiuZ.HuS. (2020). Factors associated with mental health outcomes among health care workers exposed to coronavirus disease 2019. JAMA Network Open, 3(3), e203976. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamanetworkopen.2020.3976
24.
LiZ.MoranoJ. P.KhoshnoodK.HsiehE.ShengY. (2018). HIV-related stigma among people living with HIV/AIDS in rural Central China. BMC Health Services Research, 18(1), 453. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12913-018-3245-0
25.
LiuJ. J.BaoY.HuangX.ShiJ.LuL. (2020). Mental health considerations for children quarantined because of COVID-19. The Lancet Child & Adolescent Health, 4(5), 347–349. https://doi.org/10.1016/S2352-4642(20)30096-1
26.
LoadesM. E.RimesK. A.AliS.ChalderT. (2019). Depressive symptoms in adolescents with chronic fatigue syndrome (CFS): Are rates higher than in controls and do depressive symptoms affect outcome?Clinical Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 24(3), 580–592. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359104519838584
27.
LudvigssonJ. F. (2020). Systematic review of COVID‐19 in children shows milder cases and a better prognosis than adults. Acta Paediatrica, 109(6), 1088–1095. https://doi.org/10.1111/apa.15270
28.
MeheraliS.PunjaniN.Louie-PoonS.Abdul RahimK.DasJ. K.SalamR. A.LassiZ. S. (2021). Mental health of children and adolescents amidst COVID-19 and past pandemics: A rapid systematic review. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 18(7), 3432. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph18073432
29.
MorganC.KirkbrideJ.LeffJ.CraigT.HutchinsonG.McKenzieK.MorganK.DazzanP.DoodyG. A.JonesP.MurrayR.FearonP. (2007). Parental separation, loss and psychosis in different ethnic groups: A case-control study. Psychological Medicine, 37(04), 495. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0033291706009330
30.
MurataS.RezeppaT.ThomaB.MarengoL.KrancevichK.ChiykaE.HayesB.GoodfriendE.DealM.ZhongY.BrummitB.CouryT.RistonS.BrentD. A.MelhemN. M. (2021). The psychiatric sequelae of the COVID‐19 pandemic in adolescents, adults, and health care workers. Depression and Anxiety, 38(2), 233–246. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.23120
31.
NorredamM.NellumsL.NielsenR. S.BybergS.PetersenJ. H. (2018). Incidence of psychiatric disorders among accompanied and unaccompanied asylum-seeking children in Denmark: A nation-wide register-based cohort study. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 27(4), 439–446. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-018-1122-3
32.
ÖyB. (1991). Çocuklar için depresyon ölçeği: Geçerlilik ve güvenirlik çalışması. Türk patoloji dergisi, 2(2), 132–136.
33.
RabeloI.LeeV.FallahM. P.MassaquoiM.EvlampidouI.CrestaniR.DecrooT.Van den BerghR.SeveryN. (2016). Psychological distress among ebola survivors discharged from an ebola treatment unit in Monrovia, Liberia—A qualitative study. Frontiers in Public Health, 4, 142. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpubh.2016.00142.
34.
Salazar de PabloG.Vaquerizo-SerranoJ.CatalanA.ArangoC.MorenoC.FerreF.ShinJ. I.SullivanS.BrondinoN.SolmiM.Fusar-PoliP. (2020). Impact of coronavirus syndromes on physical and mental health of health care workers: Systematic review and meta-analysis. Journal of Affective Disorders, 275, 48-57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.06.022.
35.
SamuelG.DiBartolo-CordovanoR.TajI.MerriamA.LopezJ. M.TorresC.LantiguaR. A.MorseS.ChangB. P.Gyamfi-BannermanC.ThakurK. T. (2018). A survey of the knowledge, attitudes and practices on Zika virus in New York City. BMC Public Health, 18(1), 98. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-017-4991-3
36.
SantavirtaT.SantavirtaN.BetancourtT. S.GilmanS. E. (2015). Long term mental health outcomes of finnish children evacuated to Swedish families during the second world war and their non-evacuated siblings: Cohort study. BMJ (Clinical Research ed.), 350(jan05 1), g7753. https://doi.org/10.1136/bmj.g7753
TomczykS.RahnM.SchmidtS. (2020). Social distancing and stigma: Association between compliance with behavioral recommendations, risk perception, and stigmatizing attitudes during the COVID-19 outbreak. Frontiers in Psychology, 11, 1821. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.01821.
39.
Vesga-LópezO.SchneierF. R.WangS.HeimbergR. G.LiuS.-M.HasinD. S.BlancoC. (2008). Gender differences in generalized anxiety disorder: Results from the national epidemiologic survey on alcohol and related conditions (NESARC). The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 69(10), 1606–1616.
40.
WangG.ZhangY.ZhaoJ.ZhangJ.JiangF. (2020). Mitigate the effects of home confinement on children during the COVID-19 outbreak. The Lancet, 395(10228), 945–947. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0140-6736(20)30547-X
41.
WilcoxH. C.KuramotoS. J.LichtensteinP.LångströmN.BrentD. A.RunesonB. (2010). Psychiatric morbidity, violent crime, and suicide among children and adolescents exposed to parental death. Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 49(5), 514–523. https://doi.org/10.1097/00004583-201005000-00012
42.
XieX.XueQ.ZhouY.ZhuK.LiuQ.ZhangJ.SongR. (2020). Mental health status among children in home confinement during the coronavirus disease 2019 outbreak in Hubei province, China. JAMA Pediatrics, 174(9), 898. https://doi.org/10.1001/jamapediatrics.2020.1619
43.
ZhouS.-J.ZhangL.-G.WangL.-L.GuoZ.-C.WangJ.-Q.ChenJ.-C.LiuM.ChenX.ChenJ.-X. (2020). Prevalence and socio-demographic correlates of psychological health problems in Chinese adolescents during the outbreak of COVID-19. European Child & Adolescent Psychiatry, 29(6), 749–758. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00787-020-01541-4
