Parenting training is a proven strategy for the promotion of positive parenting practices and for the prevention and treatment of behavior problems in children. The processes that explain this efficacy are less clear. The aim of this study was to assess the mediating role of parenting practice modification, encouraged through the implementation of a universal parenting training program, for the decrease of behavior problems in 3- to 6-year-old children.
Method:
A cluster randomized trial was carried out in 19 educational centers in low and middle socioeconomic areas. A total of 178 families received the program and 154 of them were the control group. The following parenting practices were assessed: positive reinforcement, involvement, inconsistency, unsuitable treatment behaviors and physical punishment, as well as hostility and humiliation behaviors. Parent–child interaction was also assessed using an observational instrument. A multiple mediation analysis was carried out, identifying the indirect effects.
Results:
Reduction of harsh discipline and physical punishment, and parental inconsistency mediated the effects observed in the reduction of child behavior problems during the program.
Conclusion:
Within Chilean families, harsh discipline, physical punishment, and parental inconsistency are important aspects to be considered in the implementation of universal parenting training programs.
BaronR. M.KennyD. A. (1986). The moderator–mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173–1182.
2.
BatesD. M.MaechlerM.BolkerB.WalkerS. (2015). Fitting linear mixed-effects models using lme4. Journal of Statistical Software, 67(1), 1–48. doi:10.1177/009286150103500418
3.
BeauchaineT. P.Webster-StrattonC.ReidM. J. (2005). Mediators, moderators, and predictors of 1-year outcomes among children treated for early-onset conduct problems: A latent growth curve analysis. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 73, 371–388. doi:10.1037/0022-006x.73.3.371
4.
ChackoA.JensenS. A.LowryL. S.CornwellM.ChimklisA.ChanE.. . . PulgarinB. (2016). Engagement in behavioral parent training: Review of the literature and implications for practice. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 19, 204–215. doi:10.1007/s10567-016-0205-2
5.
ClerkinS. M.MarksD. J.PolicaroK. L.HalperinJ. M. (2007). Psychometric properties of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire-Preschool Revision. Journal of Clinical Child & Adolescent Psychology, 36(1), 19–28. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp3601_3
6.
ComfortM.GordonP. R.NaplesD. (2011). KIPS: An evidence-based tool for assessing parenting strengths and needs in diverse families. Infants & Young Children, 24, 56–74. doi:10.1097/Iyc.0b013e3182001bd3
7.
CovaF.BustosC.RincónP.StreinerD. L.GrandónP.SaldiviaS.. . . ContrerasG. (2017). Psychometric properties of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire adapted to families of Chilean preschoolers. Infant Mental Health Journal, 38, 249–257. doi:10.1002/imhj.21631
8.
de la OsaN.GraneroR.PeneloE.DomenechJ. M.EzpeletaL. (2014). Psychometric properties of the Alabama Parenting Questionnaire-Preschool Revision (APQ-Pr) in 3 year-old Spanish preschoolers. Journal of Child and Family Studies, 23, 776–784. doi:10.1007/s10826-013-9730-5
9.
EfronB.TibshiraniR. (1993). An introduction to the bootstrap. London, England: Chapman & Hall.
FaganA. A.BenediniK. M. (2016). How do family-focused prevention programs work? A review of mediating mechanisms associated with reductions in youth antisocial behaviors. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 19, 285–309. doi:10.1007/s10567-016-0207-0
12.
FloresJ. J.HerreraL. M. F. (2014). Design and psychometric validation of the Harsh Discipline Practice List. Revista Iberoamericana De Diagnostico Y Evaluacion-e Avaliacao Psicologica, 2, 137–153.
13.
FonagyP. (2015). What works for whom? A critical review of treatments for children and adolescents (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
14.
ForehandR.LafkoN.ParentJ.BurtK. B. (2014). Is parenting the mediator of change in behavioral parent training for externalizing problems of youth?Clinical Psychology Review, 34, 608–619. doi:10.1016/j.cpr.2014.10.001
15.
ForgatchM. S.KjobliJ. (2016). Parent Management Training-Oregon Model: Adapting Intervention with Rigorous Research. Family Process, 55, 500–513. doi:10.1111/famp.12224
16.
FossumS.MorchW. T.HandegardB. H.DrugliM. B.LarssonB. (2009). Parent training for young Norwegian children with ODD and CD problems: Predictors and mediators of treatment outcome. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 50, 173–181. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9450.2008.00700.x
17.
Garcia-TornalS.CalzadaE.EybergS.MasJ.VilamalaC.BarazaC.. . . TrinxantA. (1998). Inventario Eyberg del comportamiento en niños. Normalización de la versión española y su utilidad para el pediatra extrahospitalario [Eyberg Child Behavior Inventory. Standardization of the Spanish Version and its Utility in Pediatric Practice].Anales Españoles De Pediatría, 48, 475–482.
18.
GardnerF.ConnellA.TrentacostaC. J.ShawD. S.DishionT. J.WilsonM. N. (2009). Moderators of outcome in a brief family-centered intervention for preventing early problem behavior. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77, 543–553. doi:10.1037/a0015622
19.
GardnerF.DishionT. J.ShawD. S.BurtonJ.SuppleeL. (2007). Randomized prevention trial for early conduct problems: Effects on proactive parenting and links to toddler disruptive behavior. Journal of Family Psychology, 21, 398–406. doi:10.1037/0893-3200.21.3.398
20.
GreenbergM.RiggsN. (2015). Prevention of mental disorders and promotion of competence. In ThaperA.PineD.LeckmanJ.ScottS.SnowlingM.TaylorE. (Eds.), Rutter’s child and adolescent psychiatry (pp. 215–226). Oxford, UK: John Wiley.
21.
HayesA. F. (2013). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression-based approach. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.
22.
HiscockH.BayerJ. K.PriceA.UkoumunneO. C.RogersS.WakeM. (2008). Universal parenting programme to prevent early childhood behavioural problems: Cluster randomised trial. British Medical Journal, 336, 318–321. doi:10.1136/bmj.39451.609676.AE
23.
InostrozaC.ContrerasG.CovaF.RincónP.GrandónP.SaldiviaS. (2014). Acuerdo interjueces en el empleo de la escala observacional de prácticas parentales KIPS en una muestra de madres/niños chilenos de 36 a 71 meses [Inter-rater agreement in the use of keys to interactive parenting scale kips in a sample of Chilean mothers-children from 36 to 71 months]. Ajayu, 12, 120–134.
24.
KaminskiJ. W.ValleL. A.FileneJ. H.BoyleC. L. (2008). A meta-analytic review of components associated with parent training program effectiveness. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 36, 567–589. doi:10.1007/s10802-007-9201-9
25.
KnerrW.GardnerF.CluverL. (2013). Improving positive parenting skills and reducing harsh and abusive parenting in low- and middle-income countries: A systematic review. Prevention Science, 14, 352–363. doi:10.1007/s11121-012-0314-1
26.
LuoW.AzenR. (2013). Determining predictor importance in hierarchical linear models using dominance analysis. Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics, 38, 3–31. doi:10.3102/1076998612458319
27.
MacKinnonD. P. (2008). Introduction to statistical mediation analysis. New York, NY: Lawrence Erlbaum.
28.
MacKinnonD. P.LockwoodC. M.HoffmanJ. M.WestS. G.SheetsV. (2002). A comparison of methods to test mediation and other intervening variable effects. Psychological Methods, 7, 83–104. doi:10.1037//1082-989x.7.1.83
29.
MacKinnonD. P.LockwoodC. M.WilliamsJ. (2004). Confidence limits for the indirect effect: Distribution of the product and resampling methods. Multivariate Behavioral Research, 39, 99–128. doi:10.1207/s15327906mbr3901_4
30.
MarchandE.SticeE.RohdeP.BeckerC. B. (2011). Moving from efficacy to effectiveness trials in prevention research. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 49, 32–41. doi:10.1016/j.brat.2010.10.008
31.
PatelC. C.FairchildA. J.PrinzR. J. (2017). Potential mediators in parenting and family intervention: Quality of mediation analyses. Clinical Child and Family Psychology Review, 20, 127–145. doi:10.1007/s10567-016-0221-2
32.
PreacherK. J.HayesA. F. (2008). Asymptotic and resampling strategies for assessing and comparing indirect effects in multiple mediator models. Behavior Research Methods, 40, 879–891. doi:10.3758/Brm.40.3.879
33.
RinconP.CovaF.SaldiviaS.BustosC.GrandónP.InostrozaC.. . . KingM. (2018). Effectiveness of a positive parental practices training program for Chilean preschoolers’ families: A randomized controlled trial. Frontiers in Psychology, 9, 1751.
34.
RubinD. B. (1987). Multiple imputation for nonresponse in surveys. New York, NY: John Wiley.
35.
SandlerI. N.SchoenfelderE. N.WolchikS. A.MacKinnonD. P. (2011). Long-term impact of prevention programs to promote effective parenting: Lasting effects but uncertain processes. Annual Review of Psychology, 62, 299–329. doi:10.1146/annurev.psych.121208.131619
36.
SchomakerM.HeumannC. (2018). Bootstrap inference when using multiple imputation. Statistics in Medicine, 37, 2252–2266.
37.
ScottS. (2015). Oppositional and conduct disorders. In ThaperA.PineD.LeckmanJ.ScottS.SnowlingM.TaylorE. (Eds.), Rutter’s child and adolescent psychiatry (pp. 913–930). Oxford, UK: John Wiley.
38.
ScottS.GardnerF. (2015). Parenting programs. In ThaperA.PineD.LeckmanJ.ScottS.SnowlingM.TaylorE. (Eds.), Rutter’s child and adolescent psychiatry (pp. 483–495). Oxford, UK: John Wiley.
39.
SheltonK. K.FrickP. J.WoottonJ. (1996). Assessment of parenting practices in families of elementary school-age children. Journal of Clinical Child Psychology, 25, 317–329. doi:10.1207/s15374424jccp2503_8
40.
SimkissD. E.SnooksH. A.StallardN.KimaniP. K.SewellB.FitzsimmonsD.. . . Stewart-BrownS. (2013). Effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of a universal parenting skills programme in deprived communities: Multicentre randomised controlled trial. BMJ Open, 3(8), e002851. doi:10.1136/bmjopen-2013-002851
41.
UNICEF. (2015). 4° Estudio de maltrato infantil en Chile: análisis comparativo 1994-2000-2006-2012 [4th Study of child maltreatment in Chile: comparative analysis 1994-2000-2006-2012]. Santiago de Chile, Chile: Andros.
42.
Van BuurenS.Groothuis-OudshoornK. (2011). Multivariate imputation by chained equations. Journal of Statistical Software, 45(3), 1–67. doi:10.1177/0962280206074463
