The failure of the adolescent medical patient to adhere to prescribed medical treatment is one of the major reasons for psychiatric consultation in pediatric medical settings. This article reviews the developmental issues that interfere with treatment adherence in adolescents with chronic physical illness as well as the importance of co-morbid psychiatric disorders. Incomplete adherence is conceptualized as a clinical phenomenon that can be understood by considering both developmental and psychopathological factors that influence health care behavior. Interventions designed to enhance treatment adherence need to consider both developmental issues and psychiatric co-morbidity in order to improve outcome.
Abbott, J.
, Dodd, M., Bilton, D., & Webb, A. K. (1994). Treatment compliance in adults with cystic fibrosis. Thorax, 49, 115-120.
2.
Abram, H. S.
(1978). Repetitive dialysis. In T. P. Hackett & N. H. Cassem (Eds.), Massachusetts General Hospital handbook of psychiatry (pp. 342-364). St. Louis, MO: Mosby.
3.
Abram, H. S.
, Gorden, L., Moore, M. E., & Westervelt, F. (1971). Suicidal behaviour in chronic dialysis patients. American Journal of Psychiatry, 127, 9.
4.
Alter, C. L.
, Pelcovitz, D., Axelrod, A., Goldenberg, B., Harris, H., Meyers, B., Grobois, B., Mandel, F., Septimus, A., & Kaplan, S. (1996). The identification of PTSD in cancer survivors. Psychosomatics, 37, 137-143.
5.
American Psychiatric Association
. (1987). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders (3rd ed.). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
6.
Anderson, B. J.
, Auslander, W. F., Jung, K. C., Miller, J. P., & Santiago, J.V. (1990). Assessing family sharing of diabetes responsibilities. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 15, 477-492.
7.
Anderson, B. J.
, Miller, J. P., Auslander, W. F., & Santiago, J. V. (1981). Family characteristics of diabetic adolescents: Relationship to metabolic control. Diabetes Care, 4, 586-594.
8.
Anderson, B. J.
, Wolf, F. M., Burkhart, M. T., Cornell, R. G., & Bacon, G. E. (1989). Effects of peer-group intervention on metabolic control of adolescents with IDDM: Randomized outpatient study. Diabetes Care, 3, 179-183.
9.
Beck, D. E.
, Fennell, R. S., Yost, R. L., Robinson, J. D., Geary, D., & Richards, G.A. (1980). Evaluation of an educational program on compliance with medication regimens in pediatric patients with renal transplants. Journal of Pediatrics, 96, 1094-1097.
10.
Berg, J. S.
, Dischler, J., Wagner, D. J., Raia, J., & Palmer-Shevlin, N. (1993). Medication compliance: A health care problem. Annals of Pharmacotherapy, 27(Suppl.), 2-21.
11.
Bloom, B. R.
, & Murray, C. J. L. (1992). Tuberculosis: Commentary on a reemergent killer. Science, 257, 1055-1064.
12.
Blos, P.
(1967). The second individuation process of adolescence. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 22, 162-186.
13.
Brooks-Gunn, J.
(1993). Why do adolescents have difficulties adhering to health regimes? In N.A. Krasnegor, L. Epstein, S.B. Johnson, & S.J. Yaffe (Eds.), Developmental aspects of health compliance behavior (pp. 125-152). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
14.
Brownbridge, G.
, & Fielding, D. M. (1994). Psychosocial adjustment and adherence to dialysis treatment regimens. Pediatric Nephrology, 8, 744-749.
15.
Campbell, J. D.
(1975). Illness is a point of view: The development of children’s concepts of illness. Child Development, 46, 92-100.
16.
Cella, D. F.
, Mahon, S. M., & Donovan, M. (1990). Cancer recurrence as a traumatic event. Behavioral Medicine, 16, 15-22.
17.
Christiaanse, M. E.
, Lavigne, J. V., & Lerner, C. V. (1989). Psychosocial aspects of compliance in children and adolescents with asthma. Journal of Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 10, 75-80.
18.
Cooper, D. K. C.
, Lanza, R. P., & Barnard, C. N. (1984). Noncompliance in heart transplant recipients: The Cape Town experience. Heart Transplantation, 3, 248-253.
19.
Cox, D.
, Irvine, A., Gonder-Frederick, L., Nowacek, G., & Butterfield, J. (1987). Fear of hypoglycemia: Quantification, validation, and utilization. Diabetes Care, 10, 617-621.
20.
Deaton, A. V.
(1995). Adaptive noncompliance in pediatric asthma: The parent as expert. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 10, 1-14.
21.
Dolgin, M. J.
, Katz, E. R., Doctors, S. R., & Siegel, S. E. (1986). Caregivers’ perceptions of medical compliance in adolescents with cancer. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 7, 22-27.
22.
DuPaul, G. J.
, & Kyle, K. E. (1995). Pediatric pharmacology and psychopharmacology. In M. C. Roberts (Ed.), Handbook of Pediatric Psychology (2nd ed., pp. 741-758). New York: Guilford Press.
23.
Elkind, D.
(1967). Egocentrism in adolescence. Child Development, 38, 1025-1034.
24.
Elliot, R. L.
(1987). The masochistic patient in consultation-liaison psychiatry. General Hospital Psychiatry, 9, 241-250.
25.
Eney, R. D.
, & Goldstein, E. O. (1976). Compliance of chronic asthmatics with oral administration of theophylline as measure by serum and salivary levels. Pediatrics, 57, 513-517.
26.
Ettenger, R. B.
, Rosenthal, J. T., Marik, J. L., Malekzadeh, M., Forsythe, S. B., Kamil, E. S., Salusky, I. B., & Fine, R. N. (1991). Improved cadaveric renal transplant outcome in children. Pediatric Nephrology, 5, 137-142.
27.
Friedman, I. M.
, & Litt, I. F. (1987). Adolescents’ compliance with therapeutic regimens: Psychological and social aspects and intervention. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 8, 52-65.
28.
Friedman, I. M.
, Litt, I. F., King, D. R., Henson, R., Holtzman, D., Halverson, D., & Kraemer, H. C. (1986). Compliance with anticonvulsant therapy by epileptic youth. Journal of Adolescent Health Care, 7, 12-17.
29.
Goldring, J. M.
, James, D. S., & Anderson, H. A. (1993). Chronic lung diseases. In P. L. Brownson & J. R. Davis (Eds.), Chronic disease epidemiology and control (pp. 169-197). Washington, DC: American Public Health Association.
30.
Green, B. L.
, Epstein, S. A., Krupnick, J. L., & Rowland, J. H. (1997). Trauma and medical illness: Assessing trauma-related disorders in the medical settings. In J.P. Wilson & T.M. Keane (Eds.), Assessing psychological trauma and PTSD (pp. 160-191). New York: Guilford Press.
31.
Gudas, L. J.
, Koocher, G. P., & Wyplj, D. (1991). Perceptions of medical compliance in children and adolescents with cystic fibrosis. Developmental and Behavioral Pediatrics, 12, 236-247.
32.
Hamburg, B. A.
, & Wortman, R. N. (1996/1997). Adolescent development and psychopathology. In R. Michels (Chairman, Editorial Board), Psychiatry (Vol. 2, pp. 1-15). Philadephia: Lippincott-Raven.
33.
Harris, R.
, & Linn, M. W. (1985). Health beliefs, compliance, and control of diabetes mellitus. Southern Medical Journal, 78, 162-166.
34.
Hauser, S. T.
(1991). Adolescents and their families: Paths of ego development. New York: Free Press.
35.
Hauser, S. T.
, Jacobson, A. M., Lavori, P., Wolfsdorf, J. I., Herskowitz, R. D., Milley, J., Bliss, R., Gelfand, E., Wertlieb, D., & Stein, J. (1990). Adherence among children and adolescents with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus over a four year longitudinal follow- up: The influence of patient coping and adjustment. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 15, 511-526.
36.
Haynes, R. B.
(1979). Introduction. In D. W. Taylor & D. L. Sackett (Eds.), Compliance in health care (pp. 1-7). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press.
37.
Irwin, C.
(1989). Risk-taking behavior in the adolescent patient: Are they impulsive?Pediatric Annals, 18, 122-133.
38.
Jacobson, A. M.
, Hauser, S. T., Wolfsdorg, J. I., Houlihan, J., Milley, J. E., Herskowitz, R. D., Wertlieb, D., & Watt, E. (1987). Psychologic predictors of compliance in children with recent onset diabetes mellitus. Journal of Pediatrics, 110, 805-811.
39.
Johnson, S. B.
(1995). Insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. In M. C. Roberts (Ed.), Handbook of pediatric psychology (2nd ed., pp. 263-285). New York: Guilford Press.
40.
Johnson, S. B.
, Silverstein, J., Rosenbloom, A., Carter, R., & Cunningham, W. (1986). Assessing daily management of childhood diabetes. Health Psychology, 5, 545-564.
41.
Koocher, G. E.
, & O’Malley, J. E. (1981). The Damocles syndrome: Psychological consequences of surviving childhood cancer. New York: McGraw-Hill.
42.
Koocher, G. P.
, McGrath, M. L., & Gudas, L. J. (1990). Typologies of nonadherence in cystic fibrosis. Journal of Developmental & Behavioral Pediatrics, 11, 353-358.
43.
Korsch, B. M.
, Fine, R. N., & Negrete, V. F. (1978). Noncompliance in children with renal transplants. Pediatrics, 61, 872-876.
44.
Kovacs, M.
, Goldston, D., Obrosky, D. S., & Iyengar, S. (1992). Prevalence and predictors of pervasive noncompliance with medical treatment among youths with insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 31, 1112-1119.
45.
La Greca, A. M.
(1990a). Issue in adherence with pediatric regimens. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 15, 423-436.
46.
La Greca, A. M.
(1990b). Social consequences of pediatric conditions: Fertile area for future investigation and intervention?Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 15, 423-436.
47.
La Greca, A. M.
, Follansbee, D., & Skyler, J. S. (1990). Developmental and behavioral aspects of diabetes management in youngsters. Child Health Care, 19, 132-137.
48.
La Greca, A. M.
, & Skyler, J. S. (1991). Psychological management of diabetes. In C. J. H. Kelnar (Ed.), Childhood diabetes (pp. 295-310). London: Chapman & Hall.
49.
La Greca, A. M.
, & Schuman, W. B. (1995). Adherence to prescribed medical regimens. In M.C. Roberts (Ed.), Handbook of pediatric psychology (2nd ed., pp. 55-83). New York: Guilford Press.
50.
Lask, B.
(1994). Non-adherence to treatment in cystic fibrosis. Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 87, S21, 25-27.
51.
Lipsitt, D. R.
(1970). Medical and psychological characteristics of ‘crocks’. Psychiatric Medicine, 1, 15-25.
52.
Litt, I.
, & Cuskey, W. R. (1980). Compliance with medical regimens during adolescence. Pediatric Clinics of North America, 27, 1-15.
53.
Lorenz, R. A.
, & Wysocki, T. (1991). The family and childhood diabetes. Diabetes Spectrum, 4, 261-292.
54.
Marteau, T. M.
, Bloch, S., & Baum, J. D. (1987). Family life and diabetic control. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 28, 823-833.
55.
Nocon, A.
(1991). Social and emotional impact of childhood asthma. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 66, 458-460.
56.
Padgett, D.
, Mumford, E., Hynes, M., & Carter, R. (1988). Meta-analysis of the effects of educational and psychosocial interventions on management of diabetes mellitus. Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 41, 1007-1030.
57.
Perry, S.
, Difede, J., Musngi, G., Frances, A. J., & Jacobsberg, L. (1992). Predictors of posttraumatic stress disorder after burn injury. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 931-935.
58.
Piaget, J.
(1968). The growth of logical thinking. New York: BasicBooks.
59.
Ponton, L. E.
(1997). The romance of risk. New York: BasicBooks.
60.
Quittner, A. L.
, Tolbert, V. E., Regoli, M. J., Orenstein, D., Hollingsworth, J. L., & Eigen, H. (1996). Development of the Role-play Inventory of Situations and Coping Strategies (RISCS) for parents of children with cystic fibrosis. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 21, 209-235.
61.
Quittner, A. L.
, Drotar, D., Ievers-Landis, C., Seidner, D., Slocum, N., & Jacobsen, J. (2000). Adherence to medical treatments in adolescents with cystic fibrosis: The development and evaluation of family-based interventions. In D. Drotar (Ed.), Promoting adherence to medical treatment in childhood chronic illness: Concepts, methods, and interventions (pp. 383-407). Mahwah, NJ: Erlbaum.
62.
Rapoff, M. A.
(1999). Adherence to pediatric medical regimens. New York: Kluwer Academic/Plenum.
63.
Rapoff, M. A.
, Purviance, M. R., & Lindsley, C. B. (1988). Improving medication compliance for juvenile rheumatoid arthritis and its effect on clinical outcome: A single-subject analysis. Arthritic Care Research, 1, 12-16.
64.
Reynolds, J. M.
, & Garralda, M. E. (1988). How parents and families cope with chronic renal failure. Archives of Disease in Childhood, 63, 821-826.
65.
Robin, A. L.
, & Foster, S. L. (1989). Negotiating parent–adolescent conflict: A behavioral family systems approach. New York: Guilford Press.
66.
Roca, R. P.
, Spence, R. J., & Munster, A. M. (1992). Posttraumatic adaptation and distress among adult burn survivors. American Journal of Psychiatry, 149, 1234-1238.
67.
Satin, W.
, La Greca, A.M., Zigo, M. A., & Skyler, J. S. (1989). Diabetes in adolescence: Effects of multifamily group intervention and parent simulation of diabetes. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 14, 259-276.
68.
Schweitzer, J. B.
, & Hobbs, S. A. (1995). Renal and liver disease: End-stage and transplantation issues. In M.C. Roberts (Ed.), Handbook of pediatric psychology (2nd ed., pp. 425-445). New York: Guilford Press.
69.
Serrano-Ikkos, E.
, Lask, B., Whitehead, B., & Eisler, I. (1998). Incomplete adherence after pediatric heart and heart–lung transplantation. The Journal of Heart and Lung Transplantation, 17, 1177-1183.
70.
Shaw, R. J.
(1998). Non-compliance with medical treatment as a risk-taking behavior in adolescence. Proceedings of the 45th annual meeting of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 82.
71.
Shelton, T. L.
, & Barkley, R. A. (1995). The assessment and treatment of attention- deficit/hyperactivity disorder in children. In M. C. Roberts (Ed.), Handbook of pediatric psychology (2nd ed., pp. 633-654). New York: Guilford Press.
72.
Shemesh, E.
, Lurie, S., Stuber, M. L., Emre, S, Patel, Y., Vohra, P., Aromando, M., & Shneider, B. L. (2000). A pilot study of posttraumatic stress and nonadherence in pediatric liver transplant recipients. Pediatrics, 105, 29.
73.
Steiner, H.
, & Shaw, R. J. (2000). Psychiatric assessment and management of medically ill children. In A. Stoudemire, B. Fogel, & D. Greenberg (Eds.), Psychiatric care of the medical patient (pp. 1097-1110). Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press.
74.
Stoudemire, A.
, & Thompson, T. L. II. (1993). Medication noncompliance: systematic approaches to evaluation and intervention. General Hospital Psychiatry, 5, 233-239.
75.
Stuber, M.
, Christakis, D., Houskamp, B., & Kazak, A. E. (1996). Posttraumatic symptoms in childhood leukemia survivors and their parents. Psychosomatics, 37, 254-261.
76.
Taylor, D. C.
, & Eminson, D. M. (1994). Psychological aspects of chronic physical sickness. In M. Rutter, E. Taylor, & L. Hersov (Eds.), Child and adolescent psychiatry (pp. 737-748). Oxford, UK: Blackwell Science.
77.
Ursano, R. J.
, Epstein, R. S., & Lazar, S. G. (1996). Behavioral responses to illness: Personality and personality disorders. In J. R. Rundell & M. G. Wise (Eds.), Textbook of consultation-liaison psychiatry (pp. 116-137). Washington, DC: American Psychiatric Press.
78.
Wamboldt, M. Z.
, Weintraub, P., Krafchick, D., Berce, N., & Wamboldt, F. S. (1995). Links between past parental trauma and the medical and psychological outcome of asthmatic children: a theoretical model. Family Systems Medicine, 13, 129-149.
79.
Wysocki, T.
, Harris, M. A., Greco, P., McDonell, K, Taylor, A. M., & White, N. H. (2000). Randomized, controlled trial of behavior therapy for families of adolescents with insulin- dependent diabetes mellitus. Journal of Pediatric Psychology, 25(1), 23-33.
80.
Wysocki, T.
, White, N. H., Bubb, J., Harris, M. A., & Greco, P. (1995). Family adaptation to diabetes: A model for intervention research. In J. S. Wallander & L.J. Siegel (Eds.), Advances in pediatric psychology: Adolescent health problems (pp. 289-304). New York: Guilford Press.
