Hormone Replacement Therapy and Future Risks of Arterial Disease

Uemura K. Pisa Z. Trends in cardiovascular disease mortality in industrialised countries since 1950. World Health Stat Q 1988; 41: 155–78.

Shaper A G Pocock S J Walker M. Cohen N M Wale C J Thomson A. G. British Regional Heart Study: Cardiovascular risk factors in middle-aged men in 24 towns. Br Med J 1981; 283: 179–86.

Smith W C S Tunstall-Pedoe H. Crombie I K Tavendale R. Concomitants of excess coronary deaths — major risk factor and lifestyle findings from 10 359 men and women in the Scottish Heart Health Study. Scott Med J 1989; 34: 550–55.

Glendy R E Levine S A White P. D. Coronary disease in youth: Comparison of 100 patients under 40 with 300 persons post 80. JAMA 1937; 109: 1775–78.

Tunstall-Pedoe H. Smith W C S Crombie I. K. Levels and trends of coronary heart disease in Scotland compared with some other countries. Health Bull (Edinb) 1986; 44: 153–61.

Winkelstein W. Rekate A. C. Age trend of mortality from coronary artery disease in women and observations on the reproductive patterns of those affected. Am Heart J 1964; 67: 481–88.

Margolis J R Fillum R F Feinlab M. . Community surveillance for coronary heart disease: The Framingham Cardiovascular Disease Survey. Methods and preliminary results. Am J Epidemiol 1974; 100: 425–36.

Kannel W B Hjortland M C McNamara P M Gordon T. Menopause and the risk of cardiovascular disease: The Framingham. Ann Intern Med 1976; 85: 447–52.

Matthews K A Meilahn E. Kuller L H Kelsey S. F. Menopause and risk factors for coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 1989; 321: 641–46.

Stamler J. Pick R. Katz L. N. Prevention of coronary atherosclerosis by oestrogen — androgen administration in the cholesterol-fed chick. Circ Res 1953; 1: 94–98.

Barrett-Connor E. Laakso M. Ischaemic heart disease risk in postmenopausal women: Effects of oestrogen use on glucose and insulin levels. Arteriosclerosis 1990; 10: 531–34.

Colditz G A Willett W C Stampfer M J Rosner B. Speizer F E Hennekens C. H. Menopause and the risk of coronary heart disease in women. N Engl J Med 1987; 316: 1105–110.

Kay C. The Royal College of General Practitioners Oral Contraception Study: Some recent observations. Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1984; 11: 759–86.

Stampfer M J Willett W C Colditz G A Speizer F E Hennekens C. H. A prospective study of past use of oral contraceptive agents a d risk of cardiovascular diseases. N Engl J Med 1988; 319: 1313–317.

Croft P. Hannaford P. C. Risk factors for acute myocardial infarction in women: Evidence from the Royal College of General Practitioners' oral contraception study. Br Med J 1989; 298: 165–68.

Vessey M P Villard-Mackintosh L. McPherson K. Yeates D. Mortality among oral contraceptive users: 20-year follow up of women in a cohort study. Br Med J 1989; 299: 1487–91.

Stadel B. V. Oral contraceptives and cardiovascular disease (first of two parts). N Engl J Med 1981; 305: 612–18.

Bungay G T Vessey M P McPherson C. K. Study of symptoms in middle life with special reference to the menopause. Br Med J 1980; 2: 181–83.

McKinlay S M Jefferys M. The menopausal syndrome. Br J Prev Soc Med 1974; 28: 108–115.

Samsioe G. Bryman I. Ivansson E. Some anthropological aspects of the climacteric syndrome. Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand 1985; 130 (suppl): 5–7.

Consensus Development Conference: Prophylaxis and treatment of osteoporosis. Osteoporosis Int 1991; 1: 114–17.

Cooper C. Melton L. J. Epidemiology of osteoporosis. Trends Endocrinol Metab 1992; 3: 224–29.

National Center for Health Statistics. Vital Statistics of the United States 1987, Mortality. DHHS Publication No. 90-1101, Public Health Service. Washington DC: US Government Printing Office, 1990.

Forbes C. D. Relationships of internal medicine and geriatrics: A new beginning. Scott Med J 1990; 35: 67–68.

Whitehead M. Godfree V. Hormone replacement therapy: Your questions answered Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1992.

Spector T. D. Use of oestrogen replacement therapy in high risk groups in the United Kingdom. Br Med J 1989; 299: 1434–35.

Wilkes H C Meade T. W. Hormone replacement therapy in general practice: A survey of doctors in the MRC's general practice research framework. Br Med J 1991; 302: 1317–20.

Campbell-Brown M. McEwan H. Scottish gynaecologists: Their views on hormone replacement therapy. Health Bull 1992; 50: 248–51.

Kadri A. Z. Hormone replacement therapy — a survey of perimenopausal women in a community setting. Br J Gen Prac 1991; 41: 109–112.

Consensus Statement on HRT use in Scotland (Chairman — Professor CR Edwards). Scottish Home and Health Department, 1993 (in press).

Hunt K. Vessey M. McPherson K. Coleman M. Long-term surveillance of mortality and cancer incidence in women receiving hormone replacement therapy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1987; 94: 620–35.

Barrett-Connor E. Hormone replacement and cancer. Br Med Bull 1992; 48: 345–55.

Studd J. W. W. Complications of hormone replacement therapy in postmenopausal women. J R Soc Med 1992; 85: 376–78.

Colditz G A Stampfer M J Willett W C Hennekens C H Rosner B. Speizer F. E. Prospective study of estrogen replacement therapy and risk of breast cancer in postmenopausal women. JAMA 1990; 264: 2648–53.

Henrich J. B. The postmenopausal estrogen/breast cancer controversy. JAMA 1992; 268: 1900–902.

Mann R D (ed). Hormone replacement therapy and breast cancer risk. Carnforth: Panthenon Publishing 1992.

Sillero-Arenas M. Delgado-Rodriguez M. Rodrigues-Canteras R. Bueno-Cavanillas A. Galves-Vargas R. Menopausal hormone replacement therapy and breast cancer: A meta analysis. Obstet Gynaecol 1992; 79: 286–94.

Gambrell R. D. Sex steroids and cancer. Obset Gynecol Clin North Am 1987; 14: 191–206.

Persson I. Adami H-O Berkvist L. . Risk of endometrial cancer after treatment with oestrogens alone or in conjunction with progestogens. Results of a prospective study. Br Med J 1989; 298: 147–51.

Mashchak C A Lobo R A Dozono-Takano R. . Comparison of pharmacodynamic properties of various oestrogen formulations. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1982; 144: 511–518.

Stumpfi P. G. Pharmacokinetics of estrogen. Obstet Gynaecol 1990; 75 (suppl 4): 9s–14s.

Managing the menopause: A practical guide to HRT. Oxted, UK: Medical Communication Services, 1991.

Whitehead M I Siddle N. Lane G. . The pharmacology of progestogens. In: Mishell D R ed. Menopause, physiology and pharmacology. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, 1986: 317–34.

Shaper A G Pocock S J Walker M. Phillips A N Whitehead T P Macfarlane P. W. Risk factors in ischaemic heart disease: The prospective phase of the British Regional Heart Study. J Epidemiol Commun Health 1985; 39: 197–209.

Tunstall-Pedoe H. Smith W C S Crombie I K Tavendale R. Coronary risk factor and lifestyle variation across Scotland: Results from the Scottish Health Heart Study. Scott Med J 1989; 34: 556–60.

Wilson P W F Castelli W. P. Coronary heart disease: The view from Framingham. In: Shepherd J. Packard C J McEwan S. Brownlie S M eds. In: Coronary risk factors revisited (International Congress Series 855). Amsterdam: Excerpta Medica, 1989: 3–14.

Lindquist O. Bengtsson C. Serum lipids, arterial blood pressure and body weight in relation to the menopause: Results from a population study in Goteborg, Sweden. Scand J Clin Lab Invest 1980; 40: 629–36.

Kannel W B Gordon T. Cardiovascular effects of the menopause. In: Mishell D R Jr ed. Menopause, physiology and pharmacology. New York: Year Book Medical Publishers, 1987: 91–102.

Bradley D D Wingerd J. Petitti D B Krauss R M Ramcharan S. Serum high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol in women using oral contraceptives, oestrogens and pregestens. N Engl J Med 1978; 299: 17–20.

Nachtigall L E Nachtigall R H Nachtigall R D Beckman E. M. Estrogen replacement therapy. II. A prospective study in the relationship to carcinoma and cardiovascular and metabolic problems. Obstet Gynecol 1979; 54: 74–79.

Crook D. Godsland I F Wynn V. Ovarian hormones and plasma lipoproteins. In: Whitehead M I Studd J W eds. The menopause. Oxford: Blackwell Scientific Publications, 1988: 169–81.

Jensen J. Effects of sex steroids on serum lipids and lipoproteins. Baillières Clin Obstet Gynaecol 1992; 5: 867–88.

Lindquist O. Intraindividual changes of blood pressure, serum lipids and body weight in relation to menstrual status: Results from a prospective population study of women in Goteborg. Prev Med 1982; 11: 162–72.

Jensen J. Nilas L. Christiansen C. The influence of menopause on serum lipids and lipoproteins. Maturitus 1990; 12: 321–31.

Bengtsson C. Lindquist O. Coronary heart disease during the menopause. In: Oliver M F ed. Coronary heart disease in young women. Edinburgh: Churchill Livingstone, 1978: 234–39.

Gordon T. Kannel W B Hjortland M C McNamara P. M. Menopause and coronary heart disease. The Framingham study. Ann Intern Med 1978; 89: 157–61.

Witteman J C M Grobbee D E Kok F J Hofman F J Valkenburg H. A. Increased risk of atherosclerosis in women after the menopause. Br Med J 1989; 298: 642–44.

Barrett-Connor E. Bush T. L. Estrogen and coronary heart disease in women. JAMA 1991; 265: 1861–67.

Egeland G M Kuller L H Matthews K. A. Hormone replacement therapy and lipoprotein changes during early menopause. Obstet Gynecol 1990; 76: 776–82.

Hamon T E Jr Kaplan J R Clarkson T B Bullock B. C. Effects of gender and social behaviour on the development of coronary artery atherosclerosis in cynomolgus macaques. Atherosclerosis 1983; 48: 221–33.

Adams M R Kaplan J R Clarkson T B Koritnik D. R. Ovariectomy, social status and atherosclerosis in cynomolgus monkeys. Arteriosclerosis 1985; 5: 192–200.

Adams M R Williams J K Clarkson T B Jayo M. J. Effects of oestrogens and progestogens on coronary atherosclerosis and osteoporosis of monkeys. Baillières Obstet Gynaecol 1992; 5: 915–34.

Bush T L Miller V. T. Effects of pharmacologic agents used during menopause: Impact on lipids and lipoproteins. In: Mishell D R Jr ed. Menopause: Physiology and pharmacology. Chicago: Year Book Medical Publishers, 1987: 187–208.

Krauss R M Perlman J A Ray R. Petitti D. Effects of estrogen dose and smoking on lipid and lipoprotein levels in postmenopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 158: 1606–11.

Lindberg U-B Crona N. Enk L. Silfverstolpe G. A comparison of the effects of ethinyl estradiol and estradiol valerate on serum and lipoprotein lipids. Maturitas 1988; 10: 343–52.

Rijpkewa A H M Van der Sanden A A Ruijs A. H. C. Effects of postmenopausal oestrogen–progestogen replacement therapy on serum lipids and lipoproteins: A review. Maturitas 1990; 12: 259–85.

Farish E. Rolton H A Barnes J F Hart D. M. Lipoprotein (a) concentrations in postmenopausal women taking nor-ethisterone. Br Med J 1991; 303: 694.

Kovanen P T Brown M S Goldstein J. L. Increased binding of low density lipoprotein to liver membranes from rats treated with 17α-ethinyl estradiol. J Biol Chem 1979; 254: 11367–73.

Walsh B W Schiff I. Rosner B. Greenburg L. Ravikar V. Sacks F. M. Effects of postmenopausal estrogen replacement on the concentration and metabolism of plasma lipoproteins. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 1196–204.

Hirvonen E. Malkonen M. Manninen V. Effects of different progestogens on lipoproteins during postmenopausal replacement therapy. N Engl J Med 1981; 304: 560–63.

Jensen J. Riis B J Strom V. Christiansen C. Long term and withdrawal effects of two different oestrogen–progestogen combinations on lipid and lipoprotein profiles in postmenopausal women. Maturitas 1989; 11: 117–28.

Soma M. Fumagalli R. Paoletti R. Meschia M. Maini H C Crosignani P. G. Plasma Lp(a) concentrations after oestrogen and progestogen in postmenopausal women [Letter]. Lancet 1991; 337: 612.

Christiansen C. Riis B. J. Five years of continuous combined oestrogen/progestogen therapy. Effects on calcium metabolism, lipoproteins and bleeding pattern. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990; 97: 1097–92.

Meade T W Berra A. Hormone replacement therapy and cardiovascular disease. Br Med Bull 1992; 48: 276–308.

Jacobs H S Loeffler F. E. Postmenopausal hormone replacement therapy. Lancet 1992; 305: 1403–408.

Lowe G D O Drummond M M Forbes C D Barbenel J. C. Occlusive arterial disease and blood rheology. In: Lowe G D O Barbenel J C Forbes C D eds. Clinical aspects of blood viscosity and cell deformability. Berlin: Springer-Verlag, 1981: 133–48.

Stone M C Thorp J. M. Plasma fibrinogen: A major coronary risk factor. J R Coll Gen Pract 1985; 35: 565–69.

Meade T W Mellows S. Brozovic M. Haemostatic function and ischaemic heart disease; principal results of the Northwick Park Heart Study. Lancet 1986; ii: 533–37.

Cedars M I Judd H. L. Non oral routes of estrogen administration. Obstet Gynecol Clin North Am 1987; 14: 269–98.

Kannel W B Wolf P A Castelli W P D'Agostino R. B. Fibrinogen and risk of cardiovascular disease. JAMA 1987; 258: 1183–86.

Yarnell J. W. G. Baker I A Sweetnam P. M. Fibrinogen, viscosity and white blood cell count are major risk factors for ischaemic heart disease. The Caerphilly and Speedwell Collaborative Heart Disease Studies. Circulation 1991; 83: 836–44.

Davies T. Fieldhouse G. McNicol G. P. The effects of therapy with oestriol succinate and ethinyl oestradiol on the haemostatic mechanism in postmenopausal women. Thromb Haemost 1976; 35: 403–14.

Meade T W Haines A P Imeson J D Stirling Y. Thomson S. G. Menopausal status and haemostatic variables. Lancet 1983; i: 22–24.

Scarabin P Y Bonithon-Kopp C. Bara L. Malmejac A. Guize L. Samama M. Factor VII activation and menopausal status. Thromb Res 1990; 57: 227–34.

Meade T W Dyer S. Howorth D J Imeson J D Stirling Y. Antithrombin III and procoagulant activity: Sex differences and effects of the menopause. Br J Haemotol 1990; 74: 77–81.

Lindberg U B Crona N. Stigendal L. Teger-Nilsson A C Silfverstolpe G. A comparison between effects of estradiol volerate and low dose ethinyl estradiol on haemostasis parameters. Thromb Haemost 1989; 61: 65–69.

Winkler U. H. Menopause, hormone replacement therapy and cardiovascular disease: A review of hemostaseological findings. Fourth Leiden Fibrinolysis Workshop, Ageing and Fibrinolysis, 1992, Leiden, Netherlands, Abstract 9.

Steinleitner A. Stanczyk F Z Lenn J. H. Decreased in-vitro production of 6-keto-prostaglandin by uterine arteries from postmenopausal women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1989; 161: 1677–81.

Whitehead M I Fraser D. Controversies concerning the safety of estrogen replacement therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1987; 156: 1313–22.

Ylikorkala O. Hirvonen E. Saure A. Urinary excretion of prostacyclin and thromboxane metabolites in climacteric women: Effects of estrogen progestin replacement therapy. Prostaglandins 1990; 39: 33–39.

Chetkowski R J Meldrum D R Steingold K. A. Biological effects of transdermal estradiol. N Engl J Med 1986; 314: 1615–20.

De Lignières B. Basdevant A. Thomas G. Biological effects of estradiol-17β in postmenopausal women: Oral versus percutaneous administration. J Clin Endocrinol Metab 1986; 62: 536–41.

Wren B G Routledge A. B. The effect of type and dose of oestrogen on the blood pressure of postmenopausal women. Maturitas 1983; 5: 135–42.

Carr B. R. Progestogens: Effect of water/salt metabolism and blood pressure. In: Consensus Development Conference on Progestogens. Int Proc J 1989; 1: 87–92.

Bourne T. Hillard T C Whitehead M I Crook D. Campbell S. Oestrogens, arterial status and postmenopausal women. Lancet 1990; 335: 1470–71.

Gangar K F Vyas S. Whitehead M I Crook D. Impedance blood flow in the internal carotid artery is influenced by transdermal oestrogen and time since the menopause. Lancet 1991; 338: 839–42.

Sarell P. M. Ovarian hormones: Recent findings of cardiological significance. Cardiol Pract 1991; 9: 14–17.

Barrett-Connor E. Putative complications of estrogen replacement therapy; hypertension, diabetes, thrombophlebitis and gall-stones. In: Korenman S G ed. The menopause. Norwell, MA: Serono Symposia, 1990: 199–209.

Sullivan J M Zwaag Vander R. Lemp G F . Postmenopausal estrogen use and coronary atherosclerosis. Ann Intern Med 1988; 108: 358–63.

Gruchow H W Anderson A J Barboriak J J Sobochinski K. A. Postmenopausal use of oestrogen and occlusion of coronary arteries. Am Heart J 1988; 115: 954–63.

McFarland K F Boniface M E Hornung C A Earnhardt W. Humphries J. O. Risk factors and non-contraceptive estrogen use in women with and without coronary disease. Am Heart J 1989; 117: 1209–214.

Beard C M Kottke T E Annegers J F Ballard D. J. The Rochester coronary heart disease project: Effect of cigarette smoking, hypertension, diabetes and steroidal estrogen use on coronary heart disease among 40–59-year-old women, 1960 through 1982. Mayo Clin Proc 1989; 64: 1471–480.

Pfeffer R I Van den Noort S. Estrogen use and stroke risk in postmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol 1976; 103: 445–56.

Pfeffer R I Whipple G H Kurosaki T T Chapman J. M. Coronary risk and estrogen use in postmenopausal women. Am J Epidemiol 1978; 107: 479–87.

Croft P. Hannaford P. C. Risk factors for acute myocardial infarction in women: Evidence from the Royal College of General Practitioners Oral Contraception Study. Br Med J 1989; 298: 165–68.

Rosenberg L. Slone D. Shapiro S. Kaufman D. Stolley P D Miettinen O. S. Noncontraceptive estrogens and myocardial infarction in young women. JAMA 1980; 244: 339–42.

Szklo M. Tonascia J. Gordis L. Bloom I. Estrogen use and myocardial infarction risk: A case–control study. Prev Med 1984; 13: 510–16.

Ross R K Mack T M Henderson E B Paganini-Hill A. Arthur M. Menopausal oestrogen therapy and protection from death from ischaemic heart disease. Lancet 1981; i: 858–60.

Jick H. Dinan B. Kenneth J. Rothman D. P. H. Noncontraceptive estrogens and nonfatal myocardial infarction JAMA 1978; 239: 1407–408.

Bain C. Willett W. Hennekens C H Rosner B. Belanger C. Speizer F. E. Use of postmenopausal hormones and risk of myocardial infarction. Circulation 1981; 64: 42–46.

Rosenberg L. Armstrong B. Jick H. Myocardial infarction and estrogen therapy in postmenopausal women. N Engl J Med 1976; 294: 1256–59.

Adam S. Williams V. Vessey M. P. Cardiovascular disease and hormone replacement treatment: A pilot case–control study. Br Med J 1981; 282: 1277–78.

Thompson S G Meade T W Greenberg G. The use of hormonal replacement therapy and the risk of stroke and myocardial infarction in women. J Epidemiol Commun Health 1989; 43: 173–78.

Talbott E. Kuller L H Detre K. . Biologic and psychosocial risk factors of sudden death from coronary disease in white women. Am J Cardiol 1977; 39: 858–64.

La Vecchia C. Franceshi S. Decarli A S . Risk factors for myocardial infarction in young women. Am J Epidemiol 1987; 125: 832–43.

Bush T L Millar-Bass K. Oestrogen therapy and cardiovascular disease: Do the benefits outweigh the risks. Baillières Obstet Gynaecol 1991; 5: 889–913.

Burch J C Byrd B F Vaughn W. K. The effects of long-term estrogen on hysterectomized women. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1974; 118: 778–82.

Hammond C B Jelovsek F R Lee K L Creasman W T Parker R. T. Effects of long-term estrogen replacement therapy. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1979; 133: 525–36.

Petitti D B Pearlman J A Sidney S. Non contraceptive estrogens and mortality: Long-term follow-up of women in the Walnut Creek study. Obstet Gynecol 1987; 70: 289–93.

Wilson P W F Garrison R J Castelli W. P. Postmenopausal estrogen use, cigarette smoking and cardiovascular morbidity in women over 50. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 1038–43.

Bush T L Cowan L D Barrett-Connor E. . Estrogen use and all-cause mortality. Preliminary results from the lipid research clinics follow-up study. JAMA 1983; 249: 903–906.

Criqui M H Suarez L. Barrett-Connor E. McPhillips J. Wingard D L Garland C. Postmenopausal estrogen use and mortality. Results from a prospective study in a defined, homogeneous community. Am J Epidemiol 1988; 128: 606–14.

Stampfer M J Colditz G A Willett W C . Postmenopausal estrogen therapy and coronary heart disease: Ten-year follow-up from the nurses' health study. N Engl J Med 1991; 325: 756–62.

Hunt K. Vessey M. MacPherson K. Coleman M. Long-term surveillance of mortality and cancer incidence in women receiving hormone replacement therapy. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1987; 94: 620–35.

Hunt K. Vessey M. McPherson K. Mortality in a cohort of long-term users of hormone replacement therapy: An updated analysis. Br J Obstet Gynaecol 1990; 97: 1080–86.

Henderson B E Paganini-Hill A. Ross R. K. Estrogen replacement therapy and protection from acute myocardial infarction. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1988; 159: 312–17.

Paganini-Hill A. Ross R K Henderson B. E. Postmenopausal estrogen treatment and stroke: A prospective study. Br Med J 1988; 297: 519–22.

Lafferty F W Helmuth D. O. Postmenopausal estrogen replacement: The prevention of osteoporosis and systemic effects. Maturitas 1985; 7: 147–59.

Stampfer M J Willett W C Colditz G A . A prospective study of postmenopausal estrogen therapy and coronary heart disease. N Engl J Med 1985; 313: 1044–49.

Eaker E. Castelli W. Coronary heart disease and its risk factors among women in the Framingham Study. In: Eaker E. Packard B. Wenger N. . eds. Coronary heart disease in women. New York: Haymarket Doyma, 1987: 122–130.

Avila M H Walker A M Jick H. Use of replacement estrogens and the risk of myocardial infarction. Epidemiology 1990; 1: 128–33.

Sullivan J M Zwaag Vander R. Hughes M A . Estrogen replacement and coronary artery disease. Effect on survival in postmenopausal women. Arch Intern Med 1990; 150: 2557–62.

Van der Giezen A M Van Kessel J G S G Schouten E G . Systolic blood pressure and cardiovascular mortality among 13 740 Dutch women. Prev Med 1990; 19: 456–65.

Wolf P H Madans J H Finucane F F . Reduction of cardiovascular disease-related mortality among postmenopausal women who use hormones: Evidence from a national cohort. Am J Obstet Gynecol 1991; 164: 489–94.

Stampfer M J Colditz G. A. Estrogen replacement therapy and coronary heart disease: A quantitative assessment of the epidemiologic evidence. Prev Med 1991; 20: 47–63.