Against the backdrop of the proliferation of Bills of Rights, this article seeks to address the conceptual and practical problems in constitutionalising equality. Using South Africa where the constitutional equality guarantee is at the heart of South Africa's nascent democracy, this article analyses how the challenges were met in the South African drafting process and have been developed/problematised through subsequent case law. The article aims to draw attention to the complexities in constitutionalising equality and drawing from the South African experience, the article seeks further to contribute to and inform debates in jurisdictions which have or are in the process of protecting equality via a Bill of Rights. The article is supported in its conclusions by a series of semi-structured interviews.
Get full access to this article
View all access options for this article.
References
1.
AbrahamsL.(2001) Entrenching Equality by Countering Racism in South Africa: A Legislative Brief. International Journal of Discrimination and the Law, 5, 119–128.
2.
AbramM. B.(1986) Affirmative Action: Fair Shakers and Social Engineers. Harvard Law Review, 99, 1312–1346.
3.
AlbertynC.GoldbattB.(1998) Facing the Challenge of Transformation: Difficulties in the Development of an Indigenous Jurisprudence of Equality. South African Journal on Human Rights, 14, 248–276.
4.
AllanJ.(2002) Rights, Paternalism, Constitutionalism and Judges. In Litigating RightsHuscroftG.RishworthP. (eds.) pp. 29–46. Hart Publishing.
5.
BarclayC.(2001) Toward Substantive Equality: A Feminist Critique of the Notion of Difference in the Canadian and South African Equality Tests. International Journal of Discrimination and the Law, 5, 167–188.
6.
BawaN.(February 1999) A Judiciary in the midst of Transformation. Standing Advisory Commission on Human Rights.
7.
BellC.(2000) Peace Agreements and Human Rights. Oxford University Press.
8.
BuckleyM.(2006) Law v. Meiorin: Exploring the Governmental Responsibility to Promote Equality under Section 15 of the Charter. In Making Equality Rights Real: Securing Substantive Equality under the Charter (FaradayF.DenikeM.StephensonM. K., eds.) pp. 179–201. Irwin Law.
9.
ButlerJ.(1998) Merely cultural. New Left Review, 227, 33–44.
10.
CarpenterG.(1997) Motifs Inscribed on Our Social Fabric: Equality in Brink v. Kitshoff. South African Journal on Human Rights, 13, 304–310.
ChaskalsonA.(2003) From wickedness to equality: The moral transformation of South African law. International Journal of Constitutional Law, 1, 4, 590–609.
13.
CockrellA.(1997) The South African Bill of Rights and the ‘Duck/Rabbit’. Modern Law Review, 60, 513–537.
14.
CooperD.(2000) And You Can’t Find me Nowhere: Relocating Identity and Structure within Equality Jurisprudence. Journal of Law and Society, 27, 249–272.
15.
CorderH.du. PlessisL. (1994) Understanding South Africa's Transitional Bill of Rights. Kenwyn: Juta.
16.
CostelloC.(2003) Positive Action. In Equality in Diversity (CostelloC.BarryE., eds.) pp. 77–212. Ashfield Publications.
17.
CowenS.(2001) Can ‘Dignity’ Guide South Africa's Equality Jurisprudence. South African Journal on Human Rights, 17, 34–58.
18.
CrenshawK.(1989) Demarginalizing the Intersection of Race and Sex: A Black Feminist Critique of Antidiscrimination Doctrine, Feminist Theory and Antiracist Politics. University of Chicago Legal Forum, 139, 139–167.
19.
DavisD.(1999) Equality: the Majesty of Legoland Jurisprudence. South African Law Journal, 116, 398–414.
20.
De VosP.(2001) A Bridge too far? History as context in the interpretation of the South African Constitution. South African Journal on Human Rights, 17, 1–33.
21.
De WaalJ.CurrieI.ErasmusG. (2001) The Bill of Rights Handbook Juta & Co.
22.
Du PlessisL. (1991) ‘Justice through Equality’ In The Freedom Charter and Beyond: Founding Principles for a Democratic South African Legal Order (SteylerN., ed.).
23.
Du PlessisL.(1996a) Evaluative Reflections on the Final Text of South Africa's Bill of Rights. Stellenbosch Law Review, 7, 283–306.
24.
Du PlessisL.(1996b) The Bill of Rights in the Working Draft of the new Constitution: An Evaluation of Aspects of a Constitutional text sui generis. Stellenbosch Law Review, 7, 3–24.
DworkinR.(2000) Sovereign Virtue: The Theory and Practice of Equality. Harvard University Press.
27.
EbrahimH.(1998) The Soul of a nation: constitution-making in South Africa. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.
28.
FaradayF.DenikeM.StephensonK(2006) In pursuit of substantive equality. In Making Equality Rights Real: Securing Substantive Equality under the Charter (FaradayF.DenikeM.StephensonM. K., eds.) pp. 9–26. Irwin Law.
29.
FinleyL. M.(1986) Transcending Equality Theory: A Way Out of the Maternity and the Workplace Debate. Columbia Law Review, 86, 1118–1182.
30.
FlanzG. H.BlausteinA. P. (eds.) (2000) Constitutions of the Countries of the World: A Series of Updated Texts, Constitutional Chronologies and Annotated Bibliographies. Kazi Publications; Ringbound.
31.
FogartyH.(1987) Equality Rights and their Limitations in the Charter. The Carswell Co.
32.
FraserN.(2000) Rethinking Recognition: Overcoming Displacement and Rectification in Cultural Politics. New Left Review, 2/3, 107–120.
33.
FraserN.(1975) Justice Interruptus: Critical Reflections on the “Post-socialist” Condition. London: Routledge.
34.
FredmanS.(2001a) Equality: A New Generation. Industrial Law Journal, 30, 145–168.
35.
FredmanS. (2001b) Combating Racism with Human Right: The Right to Equality. In Discrimination and Human Rights — The Case of Racism (FredmanS., ed.) Oxford University Press.
36.
FredmanS.(2002) Discrimination Law. Oxford University Press.
37.
FredmanS.(2006) From deference to democracy: the role of equality under the Human Rights Act 1998. Law Quarterly Review, 122, 53–81.
38.
GovenderK.(October, 2005) Attempting to achieve substantive equality in one of the most unequal societies in the world: — The South African Experience. Paper presented at NICEM's Annual Human Rights and Equality Conference, Belfast.
39.
GrantE.(2007) Dignity and Equality. Human Rights Law Review, 7, 2, 299–329.
40.
HartV. (1999) The Contagion of Rights: Constitutions as Carriers. In Identity, Rights and Constitutional Transformation (HanafinP. J.WilliamsM. S., eds.) Ashgate.
41.
HirschlR.(2004) Towards Juristocracy The Origins and consequences of the new constitutionalism. Harvard University Press.
42.
HolmsE.(2005) Anti-Discrimination Rights Without EqualityModern Law Review, 68, 2, 175–194.
43.
HonnethA.(1995) The Struggle for Recognition. Cambridge: Polity Press.
44.
HuntM. (2007) Reshaping Constitutionalism. In Judges, Transition and Human Rights Cultures (MorisonJ.McEvoyK.AnthonyG. eds.) pp. 467–477. Oxford University Press.
LivingstoneS. (24 March 2003) Equality and Human Rights paper presented to the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission Seminar, Belfast.
53.
LoenenT.(1997) The Equality Clause in the South African Constitution: Some Remarks from a comparative perspective. South African Journal on Human Rights, 13, 401–429.
54.
MacKinnonC.(1987) Feminism Unmodified. Harvard University Press.
55.
McCruddenC.(1986) Rethinking Positive Action. Industrial Law Journal, 219–243.
56.
McCruddenC.(2001) NOT THE WAY FORWARD: Some Comments on the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission's Consultation Document On a Bill of Rights for Northern Ireland. Northern Ireland Legal Quarterly, 52, 372–384.
57.
McCruddenC.(2003) Theorising European Equality Law. In Equality in Diversity (CostelloC.BarryE., eds.) pp. 1–33. Ashfield Publications.
58.
McCruddenC.(2007) Consociationalism, Equality and Minorities in the Northern Ireland Bill of Rights Debate: The Role of the OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities. In Judges, Transition and Human Rights Cultures (MorisonJ.McEvoyK.AnthonyG., eds.) pp. 315–354. Oxford University Press.
59.
McLachlin, Chief Justice Beverly (2001) Equality: The Most Difficult Right. Supreme Court Law Review, 14, 17–27.
60.
MinowM.(1988) Feminist reason: getting it and losing it. Journal for Legal Education, 38, 47–60.
61.
MonaghanK.(2008) Constitutionalising Equality: New Horizons. European Human Rights Law Review, 1, 20–43.
62.
MosenekeD.(2002) Transformative Adjudication. South African Journal on Human Rights, 18, 309–319.
63.
Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission (September 2001) Making a Bill of Rights for Northern Ireland. A Consultation by the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission.
64.
Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, (September 2000) The Bill of Rights, Equality.
65.
Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission, (April 2004) Progressing A Bill of Rights for Northern Ireland, An Update.
66.
O'ConnellR. (2008) The Role of Dignity in Equality Law: Lessons from Canada and South Africa. International Journal of Constitutional Law, 6, 2, 267–286.
67.
PhillipsA.(2000) Equality, pluralism, universality: current concerns in normative theory. British Journal of Politics and International Relations, 2, 237–255.
68.
PieterseM.(2004) Possibilities in the Domestic Enforcement of Social Rights: Contemplating the South African Experience. Human Rights Quarterly, 26, 4, 882–905.
69.
PlatzkyL.WalkerC.(1985) The Surplus People: Forced Removals in South Africa. Johannesburg: Ravan Press.
70.
PowellJ. (1996–1997) The Multiple Self: Exploring Between and Beyond Modernity and Postmodernity. Minnesota Law Review, 81, 1481–1520.
71.
ReaumeD.(2006) Discrimination and Dignity. In Making Equality Rights Real: Securing Substantive Equality under the Charter (FaradayF.DenikeM.StephensonM. K., eds.) pp. 123–177. Irwin Law.
72.
SachsA.(1991) Protecting Human Rights In A New South Africa. Oxford University Press.
73.
SampsonF.(2006) The Law Test for Discrimination and Gender Disability Inequality. In Making Equality Rights Real: Securing Substantive Equality under the Charter (FaradayF.DenikeM.StephensonM. K., eds.) pp. 245–273. Irwin Law.
74.
SmithA. (2004) The Drafting Process of a Bill of Rights for Northern Ireland. Public Law, 526–536.
75.
SpitzR.ChaskalsonM.(2002) The Politics of Transition A Hidden History of South Africa's Negotiated Settlement. Hart.
TaylorC. (1992) The Politics of Recognition. In Multiculturalism and the Politics of Recognition (GutmannA., ed.) Princeton University Press.
78.
The Bill of Rights Forum, (March 2008) Final Report: Recommendations to the Northern Ireland Human Rights Commission on a Bill of Rights for Northern Ireland.
79.
TullyJ.(1995) Strange Multiplicity. Constitutionalism in an Age of Diversity. Cambridge University Press.
80.
WaldronJ.(1993) A Right-Based Critique of Constitutional Rights. Oxford Journal of Legal Studies, 13, 18–51.
81.
YoungI. M.(1997) Unruly categories: A critique of Nancy Fraser's dual systems theory. New Left Review, 222, 147–160.
82.
YoungL. M.(1990) Justice and the Politics of Difference. Princeton University Press
83.
ZapponeK. (2001) Charting the Equality Agenda: A Coherent Framework for Equality Strategies in Ireland, North and South. Dublin: Equality Authority and Equality Commission for Northern Ireland, available at http://www.equalityni.org.uk/archive/pdf/kzreport.pdf
