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Abstract

This study critically examines boys’ experiences in primary school dance, drawing on a child-centred qualitative case study conducted across two UK primary schools. Responding to calls for more inclusive and equitable physical education (PE) practices, the research foregrounds pupil voice through an expanded ‘write, draw, show, tell’ (WDST) method, enhanced by the innovative inclusion of emojis, creating the ‘write, draw, show, tell, emoji’ (WDSTE) approach. Data were generated through 14 non-participant observations and three focus group interviews (n = 18) with Key Stage 2 boys (aged 9–11) over a 7-week unit of work. Thematic analysis of visual and verbal data revealed boys’ preferences for more democratic and collaborative learning experiences, contrasting with the dominant technical and teacher-led delivery observed in their dance lessons. These findings highlight a disconnect between pedagogical practices and what pupils found meaningful, namely, agency, creativity, and social interaction. The study contributes to ongoing conversations about meaningful PE by illustrating how participatory methods can surface often-silenced perspectives and support more inclusive, student-responsive pedagogies. Implications are offered for curriculum design and teacher practice that seek to challenge traditional gendered expectations and foster meaningful engagement for all learners in aesthetic activity areas.

Keywords

Meaningful physical education boys dance primary school

Introduction

Research positioning meaningfulness as an approach within the physical education (PE) world has gained traction since the systematic review of meaningful experiences in PE and youth sport by Beni et al. (2017). The research, while powerful for the PE community, has been dominated by a privileging of teacher voices in understanding the processes or experiences of meaningfulness, including a focus on early years or primary-based teachers (Beni et al., 2019, 2021, 2022; Ní Chróinín et al., 2018; Smith et al., 2023; Vasily, 2021), pre-service teachers (Fletcher et al., 2020; Scanlon et al., 2024), high school teachers and students (Howley et al., 2022), and university students (Lynch and Sargent, 2020). There remains limited understanding of how children negotiate and articulate their experiences of meaningfulness in PE, prompting calls for research that foregrounds their voices (Ní Chróinín et al., 2023). In initiating the focus on the child perspective, Ní Chróinín et al. (2023) strove to hear and appreciate how children attach meaning to their PE journeys. Cardiff et al. (2023) further advanced the inclusion of children's voices in meaningful PE research. They explored how empowering moments of being heard can facilitate practices that cultivate meaningful PE opportunities.

The findings from this current study form part of a doctoral thesis and build on the work of Ní Chróinín et al. (2023) and Cardiff et al. (2023). It aims to provide insight into how boys find meaning in their dance experiences using a child-centred methodological approach. Shifting the focus from the teacher's perspective on meaningfulness to the often-stifled voices of learners (Iannucci and Parker, 2022) can benefit those who value students’ insights and may lead to more meaningful PE experiences. The current study contributes a subject-specific focus on aesthetic activities to the understanding of meaningfulness in PE. In contrast, Ní Chróinín et al. (2023) explored children's voices in the context of games, which often dominate PE curricula through an emphasis on technique, competition, and game-intensive activities (Kirk, 2010; Larsson and Redelius, 2008). This focus can detract from the broader educational potential of PE. Garratt and Kumar (2020: 2) argue that framing activities in the primary PE curriculum through a competitive sporting model is ‘reductive and educationally limiting’, which can negatively affect children's learning experiences. Therefore, understanding how children find meaning across diverse activity areas is essential for promoting a more inclusive and holistic approach to PE.

Meaningfulness in PE can foster intrinsic motivation, which is linked to continued lifelong participation in sport and physical activity (Beni et al., 2017). After reviewing empirical findings over three decades, Beni et al. (2017) shared elements of young people's views of meaningfulness, characterised by lessons where importance was placed on social interactions, challenge, fun, motor competence, personally relevant learning, and delight. The need for learners to engage with others to develop positive connections with peers and teachers in their learning climate was highlighted. Teachers and learners should collaboratively modify activities to ensure that learning encounters appropriately challenge each learner's individual needs. Lessons should provide moments of pleasure and delight that support learners’ efforts. These moments, which can occur when lessons include joyful and fun activities (Kretchmar, 2006), create lasting memories for learners. In their review, Beni et al. (2017) highlighted the development of physical skills as a key factor, noting that when learners are supported to become competent, their experiences become more meaningful. Lastly, for a learning encounter to resonate with learners, it needs to relate to who they are and the lives they lead, to create relevance. Ní Chróinín et al. (2023) maintain that comprehending what children attach to their PE experiences can facilitate teacher actions in cultivating more meaningful climates. The important work tapping into the voices of primary-aged children suggests that autonomy is fruitful to PE experiences (Beni et al., 2017; Cardiff et al., 2024b). The chance to make decisions and modify games provided children with a voice that enabled the personalisation of learning (Ní Chróinín et al., 2023). In Cardiff et al.’s (2024a) study, the focus on democratic principles aimed to scaffold opportunities for amplifying student voice. This demonstrated a grappling with how learners conveyed their thoughts and how the teacher responded to these voices. These studies (Cardiff et al., 2024a; 2024b) offer valuable insights into how educators can use shared language and practices to support student voice, linking decision-making and reflective pedagogy to children's lived experiences in PE. This climate of reflecting on the past and in the moment can be a platform to recognise how children position themselves and their participation moving forward (Fletcher and Ní Chróinín, 2022). Stemming from original doctoral research, the current study critically examines boys’ perceptions of their involvement in dance, an underexplored activity area often shaped by enduring gendered assumptions.

Dance in PE

Dance has featured in the PE curriculum across numerous countries for many years (Mattsson and Lundvall, 2015), yet it can reside on the periphery and is often deemed an inconsequential part of education (Gard, 2008). Nonetheless, dance provides opportunities to develop ‘physical, cognitive, creative, expressive and emotive capacities’ (Cuellar-Moreno, 2016: 743). Some dance genres encourage cooperation, expressiveness, and critical thinking among children, as the subject often relies on peers moving together with empathy (MacLean, 2018; Nilges, 2004; Payne and Costas, 2021). For those who encounter dance within the curriculum, it has often been influenced by gender assumptions and stereotypical views (Wright, 2013).

Consequently, dance has conflicted with the gendered and sexual identities of boys, whilst sport has tended to endorse masculine identities for some boys (Adams, 2005). Masculinity has been characterised as ‘anti-femininity, homophobia, emotional restrictiveness, competitiveness, toughness, and aggressiveness’ (Espelage, 2013: 37). Dominant forms of masculinity and the perceived divergence between genders, where sport and expressive or creative movement are seen as opposites on a masculinity scale, have repercussions for those involved in dance. Stereotyping and gender norms within activities can further emphasise opportunities or restrictions for young people's engagement in physical activity (Metcalfe, 2018). This can inhibit those not conforming to privileged ways of being, resulting in missed opportunities for inclusively expressing their authentic selves within PE (Gerdin and Larsson, 2018). This strengthens the incentive to explore how boys negotiate their identities in dance, the methods of teaching, and the interactions encouraged among learners. Gard (2001) contends that dance can serve as a site for challenging how movement reinforces gendered and sexual norms, disrupting conventional assumptions about how male and female bodies are expected to move.

Despite its learning potential, placing children at the centre of dance has not been consistently achieved. Often, PE does not account for the creative safety of exploring movement possibilities (Engdahl et al., 2024; Mattsson and Gripson, 2024; Ørbæk and Engelsrud, 2021). This can be due to a disparity of qualifications and experiences in pedagogical concepts for some dance specialists and to feelings of discomfort associated with teaching dance (Alsteen, 2019; Goodwin, 2010). In UK primary schools, the Primary PE and Sport Premium funding has led to a growing reliance on sports coaches and external specialists, many of whom lack formal qualifications in PE. This outsourcing often results in providers who have limited understanding of pupils’ backgrounds and lack pedagogical training tailored to primary education (Griggs, 2016; Griggs and Randall, 2019). When externally employed dance specialists prioritise technical proficiency (Risner and Barr, 2015), it further raises important concerns about the extent to which diverse and inclusive pedagogical approaches are implemented, particularly those that promote outcomes beyond performance, such as creativity and collaboration.

Boys and dance

Over the past three decades, research has documented a range of boys’ responses to dance, highlighting both resistance and engagement. Research has emphasised how some boys show a reluctance towards dancing (Kerr-Berry, 1994; Wright, 1996), or a less than positive perception of dance than girls (Sanderson, 2001). Boys have often experienced challenges with traditional masculine identities (Edward, 2014), feelings of social isolation (Williams, 2003), lack of opportunities, and satisfaction with engagement (Gard, 2008; Risner, 2009). Research suggests that boys often experience negative emotional responses to dance lessons due to associations with femininity. As a result, their gender identities may need to be carefully negotiated and supported within these contexts (Gard, 2008; Risner, 2014).

Alternatively, some research highlights a more inclusive approach, where both traditionally feminised and masculinised traits are acknowledged and negotiated as valid ways of engaging in dance (Amado et al., 2016; Steinberg and Steinberg, 2016; Watson and Rodley, 2015). In a Spanish context, Amado et al. (2016) explored factors that engaged students during dance classes in PE and found that boys felt more comfortable when the teaching was based on creative inquiry rather than direct instruction, allowing them to modify the choreographed steps or actions in line with their ability. In contrast, when dance instruction was more directive, boys often reported growing feelings of incompetence, particularly when struggling to replicate the teacher's movements. Amado et al. (2016) found that boys’ willingness to engage cognitively with dance through creating and experimenting with ideas was central to their positive experiences. Similarly, in a boys-only cheerdance group in the UK, the all-male environment created a safe space for them to express their identities and focus on their capabilities without the pressure of comparison to girls. While the boys acknowledged that some movements were perceived as ‘feminine’, they also expressed respect for girls and recognised that these moves added depth and variety to their cheerdance routines (Watson and Rodley, 2015). Steinberg and Steinberg (2016) investigated how 9- to 11-year-old girls and boys perceived creative dance lessons in PE in a school setting in Germany. They found learners felt more secure and experienced delight when engaging in group work in dance, eradicating feelings of awkwardness in solo work. These studies reveal a disconnect between boys’ engagement in dance and their experiences of meaningfulness. This is particularly evident in how factors such as social interaction, motor competence, and perceived challenge influence their emotional responses and sense of involvement.

The current study positioned children at the centre of the data collection, thereby contributing to the discourse on meaningful experiences in PE by actively listening to and valuing their voices in the context of dance. Few studies exploring meaningful PE have specifically focused on aesthetic activity areas, which this current study addresses. This current study aims to explore boys’ dance experiences in primary PE, guided by the following research question: What do boys aspire for within lessons to encounter meaningful dance through PE? Participatory methods that allowed children to choose how they expressed themselves respected their agency and voice, enabling them to be fully engaged in the research process (Fitzgerald et al., 2021). This, in turn, provided valuable insights into their feelings and thoughts, and offered important considerations for negotiating learning moments that can foster meaningful experiences.

Methodology

Research design

The current study adopted a qualitative case study design to explore boys’ experiences of dance in primary school settings. A case study approach was chosen for its capacity to provide rich, contextualised insights into participants’ lived experiences within specific educational environments. The design was particularly suited to capturing the nuanced and affective dimensions of children's engagement with dance, which may not be easily accessible through more traditional or adult-centric research methods. Recognising the limitations of ‘adultist’ methodologies (MacKenzie et al., 2018), the study prioritised child-centred approaches. These methods aimed to empower children to express their perspectives in ways that felt natural and accessible to them. The research was conducted in two phases: non-participant observations during the dance units, followed by focus group interviews (FGIs) using a creative, multi-modal method known as 'write, draw, show, tell, emoji' (WDSTE) (Keane, 2021). The choice of methods was justified by the challenges of eliciting meaningful responses from children through conventional tools such as written diaries or standard interviews (Cardiff et al., 2024a; Ní Chróinín et al., 2023). The WDSTE approach, Adapted from Noonan et al (2016), provided various entry points for expression, including verbal, visual, and symbolic, thus promoting a sense of agency among participants. The research design emphasised the importance of building trust and rapport with participants, an essential aspect of participatory approaches. By maintaining a consistent presence during the observation phase and explaining the study's purpose and process in age-appropriate language, I strove to foster an environment where participants felt safe, informed, and respected as active contributors to the research process.

Participants and dance unit context

This study was conducted in two primary schools located in the West Midlands region of England. The schools provided contrasting educational contexts and demographics.

Peterhouse Primary (a pseudonym) is a multi-academy trust state school serving children aged 3–11 in an urban area, with an enrolment of approximately 225 pupils. Gerald's Cross School (also a pseudonym) is an independent boarding school for pupils aged 2–19, situated in a rural area, with around 360 pupils enrolled at the time of the study. The research focused on pupils in Years 5 and 6 (ages 9–11), with a total of 104 children observed across both schools during their dance units. The dance units observed were delivered over 7 weeks in each school and formed part of the schools’ PE curriculum. Each school had its own external female dance coach, with no crossover between settings. At both schools, the dance sessions emphasised technical elements, involving copying and memorising pre-choreographed dances that culminated in a performance. The children's regular class teachers were not present during the sessions.

Ethical approval for the study was granted by the University Research Ethics Committee. Eighteen boys volunteered to participate in FGIs, conducted after the observation phase. All male pupils received an information sheet and consent form and were invited to speak about dance. Informed consent was obtained from guardians, and assent was provided by those boys who chose to participate. Transparency was maintained throughout to ensure participants understood the study's purpose, the nature of the observations, and their right to withdraw at any time without consequences. Before the FGIs, participants were briefed on what the sessions would involve and encouraged to ask questions. Given the involvement of young people, they were reminded that if they experienced discomfort or unease at any stage, they could return to their classroom without any obligation to continue (British Educational Research Association, 2018).

Researcher positionality

I approached this study with a background in PE and a professional interest in inclusive pedagogies. My prior experience as an educator informed my understanding of the school environment and the dynamics of dance within PE, but I remained mindful of the need to allow the boys’ voices to guide the interpretation of their experiences. I had no prior relationship with the participants or the schools involved, which helped to maintain a degree of neutrality. However, I recognise that my presence as an adult and a researcher may have influenced how the boys responded during observations and FGIs. A central aim of this study was to elevate student voice, particularly that of boys, whose perspectives on dance in primary education are often under-represented. Recognising that traditional research methods can marginalise children's contributions, I employed creative, child-centred approaches that allowed participants to express themselves in ways that felt meaningful. By offering multiple modes of communication, the study created a space for the boys to articulate their experiences on their terms. This commitment to student voice was not only methodological but also ethical, reflecting a belief that children are experts in their own lives.

Data collection

Data collection was conducted in two distinct phases to explore boys’ experiences of dance in primary school settings. The methods were designed to capture both observed behaviours and self-reported reflections, using a combination of non-participant observations and FGIs with participatory tools.

Phase 1: Non-participant observations

Over 7 weeks, 14 dance lessons were observed, seven at each school. Each session lasted approximately 60 minutes and was observed in its entirety. I adopted a non-participant role, remaining unobtrusive while taking detailed handwritten field notes (FNs). These notes focused on the actions, interactions, and behaviours of the boys during the dance sessions, as well as the instructional approaches of the dance coaches. The observations were recorded descriptively, without immediate interpretation, to preserve the authenticity of the scenes and allow for later analysis. This approach enabled me to capture both the structure of the sessions and the boys’ engagement, including moments of enthusiasm, hesitation, collaboration, and resistance. The aim was to understand how the boys experienced dance in real time, within the naturalistic setting of their PE lessons.

Phase 2: FGIs

Following the observation phase, three FGIs were conducted with a total of 18 boys (ages 9–11), who volunteered to participate. Each group consisted of 5–7 participants and lasted approximately 45 minutes. The FGIs were held in familiar school settings to ensure comfort and ease, and participants were grouped with peers they knew, which helped foster open discussion. The creative, child-centred approach, WDSTE (Keane, 2021), was used to facilitate the FGIs. Children were invited to respond to prompts using words, drawings, Post-it notes, and emojis, and to share their responses verbally if they felt comfortable. Questions explored the boys’ feelings about dance, their perceptions of the sessions, and what they found meaningful or challenging. For example, prompts included: ‘What is the first word or emoji you think of when you know you have dance?’ and ‘What would make dance even more enjoyable?’ Table 1 outlines the structure of the WDSTE approach used.

Table 1.

Framework for practicability for WDSTE (adapted from Fane et al., 2018 and Noonan et al., 2016).

Philosophy	Rights-based research: grounded in the principles of respecting children's rights, this study prioritised voice and choice. Children as scientists: children were positioned as active participants and knowledge co-constructors, not passive subjects.
Consent and assent	Gatekeepers were provided with a detailed information letter outlining the study's purpose and procedures. Informal conversations with children explained the aims and processes of the focus group interviews using age-appropriate language. The participatory activities used in the focus groups – write, draw, show, tell, and emoji use – were clearly described to children. Written parental/guardian consent and child assent (verbal assent acceptable) were secured before participation.
Research climate	Sessions took place in familiar school environments but separate from classrooms and teachers to ensure comfort and openness. Roundtable seating was used, with materials (paper, Post-it notes, emoji cards) prepared for each child. Children were invited to co-create ground rules for respectful sharing. The researcher used a first-name basis and built rapport to reduce hierarchy and support open communication.
Show	Sessions began with a group icebreaker activity in a roundtable format to encourage equal participation. Children placed responses, written, drawn, or emoji-based, at the centre of the table for shared reflection and discussion. Prompts were used to help children reflect on and share the meanings behind their contributions.
Write and draw	Children used Post-it notes and paper to express thoughts in written or visual form. The researcher engaged with the children using familiar language to interpret their written or drawn content. Children's stories were central to the interpretation, forming part of the thematic analysis. Comments from the researcher were affirming and supportive, avoiding evaluative feedback on children's expressions.
Tell	Open-ended questions invited children to share their experiences in their own words. Emphasis was placed on shared contribution, turn-taking, and mutual respect. The researcher practised active, non-judgemental listening, acknowledging both verbal and non-verbal messages.
Emoji	Seven coloured Facebook-style reaction emojis were printed on paper and used as tactile tools. Children engaged in informal discussions about the emojis to ensure familiarity. They were asked to assign emojis to experiences and explain their choices to add context. A ‘check-back’ mechanism was used to clarify and confirm the meaning behind each emoji selected.

The use of emojis offered an accessible and emotionally resonant way for children to express their affective responses. The affective domain is considered integral because of its strong connection to mental health and emotional well-being. Educators should be encouraged to understand how to scaffold learning within this domain (Teraoka et al., 2020) and the connection it has to meaningful experiences. Emojis as a tool within data collection with children has received sparse attention, despite being acknowledged as a ‘fruitful avenue’ methodologically (Fane et al., 2018: 359). Therefore, emojis were an opportunity to connect the affective responses that the boys held towards their dance experiences due to emojis’ possibilities to demonstrate their emotional attitudes (Tian et al., 2017). Inspired by Facebook's (2016) reaction emojis (see Figure 1), this visual tool helped bridge verbal and emotional expression, especially for children who might find it difficult to articulate their feelings through words alone.

Figure 1.

Reaction emojis (Facebook, 2016).

Data analysis

Thematic analysis was used to identify and interpret patterns across the qualitative data collected from observations and FGIs. This approach followed Braun and Clarke's (2006, 2022) six-phase framework, which provided a structured and rigorous method for analysing both verbal and visual data. The analysis began with repeated readings of the data to ensure familiarity. This included transcripts of the FGIs, FNs from the observations, and the children's visual and written contributions (e.g. drawings, Post-it notes, and emoji selections). Each data type was treated as a valid and meaningful expression of the boys’ experiences. In the second phase, inductive coding was conducted separately for each school. Initial codes were generated directly from the raw data without imposing pre-existing categories. These initial codes were mapped in handwritten diagrams to help visualise patterns and relationships. This process allowed me to remain close to the data and to reflect on the meanings conveyed through both language and imagery. The third and fourth phases involved reviewing and refining the codes to identify broader themes. Codes were grouped into categories that reflected recurring ideas, such as limited voice and choice, collaborative intent, enjoyment, mixed feelings about dance, and aspirations for autonomy. These themes were then reviewed with the research question and across both school contexts to ensure coherence and relevance. A deductive layer of analysis was later introduced, using the concept of meaningful PE as a lens to interpret the data. This helped frame the boys’ experiences concerning broader educational goals and values, particularly engagement, agency, and emotional connection. Throughout the analysis, attention was paid to the interplay between verbal and visual data. For example, emoji selections were analysed alongside verbal explanations to understand the emotional nuances of the boys’ responses. Similarly, drawings were interpreted in the context of the accompanying discussion, allowing for a richer understanding of the meanings conveyed. The final phase involved defining and naming the themes and organising them into a coherent narrative that reflected the boys’ collective experiences of dance. These themes informed the structure of the findings and provided insight into how dance was perceived, experienced, and valued by the boys.

Findings

The analysis revealed similarities in experiences and feelings towards dance across the two schools. Insight into the boys’ experiences builds on the need to listen to children to understand what meanings they attach to activities within the PE curriculum. Findings are conveyed in two themes: choreographing meaningful dance through ownership and choreographing meaningful dance through interactions. Direct quotes and visual data from children illustrate each theme. Data sources are identified as FGIs and observational FNs.

Choreographing meaningful dance through ownership

This theme provides insight into students’ emotional responses to the dance lessons and their aspirations for how learning experiences could be reimagined. Dance ownership implied a desire for learners to make decisions about the creative content. Through their use of emojis, and in some cases by creating their own variations, the boys conveyed a wide range of emotions associated with dance in school. These included feelings of embarrassment, love, worry, excitement, and enjoyment, as well as sadness and anger (see Figures 2 and 3; Table 2). Notably, some boys chose to draw their emotional expressions rather than select from the provided emojis. These drawings often depicted nuanced facial expressions, offering a more personalised representation of their feelings. The richness of these emotional responses was further revealed through the boys’ verbal explanations during the FGIs, which provided insight into the reasons behind their mixed emotions and the meanings they attached to their dance experiences.

Figure 2.

Ted's drawing: emoji-inspired expression before dance class.

Figure 3.

Ged's drawing: emoji-inspired expression before dance class.

Table 2.

Emojis selected by boys to represent their emotional states before school dance lessons.

Child	Emoji/Feelings
Ted	Anxious^a and nervous^a
Dale	Sad and like
Ged	Like and sad
Pat	Sad and yay
Tag	Angry and like
Daten	Sad and excited^a
Dean	Wow and angry
Neal	I’m ok with it^a
Kane	Miserable^a and sad
Pete	Wow and angry
Raan	Sad and angry
Lee	Like and sad
Alan	Wow and oh no^a
Eden	Love and worry^a
Gerard	Wow and yay
Tre	Yay and like
Kalen	Love and embarrassed^a
Lenka	Angry and sad

Students created their emoji/feeling different from the Facebook reactions presented.

Ted highlighted negative feelings about dance lessons and suggested how dance could be taught differently. Ted's drawing depicted that he was ‘anxious’ and he talked through the emoji in Figure 2:

Ted: Because I wonder what we’re going to do, and whether … kind of sad because, if we were doing the things that we spoke about earlier [creating], then I might be a bit more enthusiastic about it. But when there are other things that you could do, you’re a bit miserable and a bit sad and don’t enjoy it. (FG1, Year 5, Peterhouse Primary)

Similarly, Ged expressed discomfort about being more openly observed in dance lessons through his drawing (Figure 3). The narrative to support Ged's drawing created a comparison between PE and dance:

Ged: I don’t know how to draw it.

Interviewer: Would you like to explain it instead?

Ged: Yeah, it's like [sighs], like a sigh. It's like you’ve got normal PE, then you’ve got dance, I think a lot of the boys … I’m not saying all the boys, I’m saying quite a lot of the boys like PE more than dance. But then you’ve got gym, because gym is like hard-core, and I think most of the boys like that as well. (FG1, Year 5, Peterhouse Primary)

Ged and Ted shared a lack of enthusiasm for dance. Ted mentioned wanting to experience ownership of dances, and the observational FNs across both schools gave insight into how they felt based on limited opportunities to engage in this learning experience:

All pupils are being told what to do and when to do it. The teacher is at the centre and has choreographed the dance already. She is getting the class to replicate her techniques and actions in the dance. (FN1, Year 5, Gerald's Cross School)

Power was predominantly held by the teacher, with the class positioned as passive recipients expected to repeat prescribed actions. Lynch and Sargent (2020) argue that to foster more socially just experiences, teachers should consider shifting from this authoritative role towards one that facilitates learner engagement within inclusive and participatory spaces. Observations across both schools revealed a consistent teacher-centred approach:

The teacher is showing technical moves for the whole class to copy individually. She adds elements with footwork and arm actions. I notice some boys struggling to follow and memorise. These boys are positioned at the back of the hall, using hiding techniques during the lesson. They go unnoticed, disengage, and do not follow what the teacher is doing. (FN1, Year 6, Peterhouse Primary)

The emphasis on technical recall in lessons often excluded some boys’ voices, diminishing their opportunity to experience competence and personal meaning through movement. Across both schools, many boys expressed a preference for engaging in dance collaboratively and creatively with others, aligning with the value placed on social interaction and co-construction of learning. Insight provided when boys were asked what they would like to share with their teacher demonstrated this:

Interviewer: What five things would you tell your dance teacher to make dance better?

Neal: I’ve only written one thing. It's like a question, ‘Can we create our dance?’

Ted: Do different types of dance, make all our dances, and listen to the children's opinions before you make a dance and pick the song.

Dean: But what I’ve done is, could we dance in groups so it's like teach us some dance moves for maybe 15 minutes, and then we could go off in our groups, and we could create dances, or just dance around. (FG1, Year 5, Peterhouse Primary)

This insight builds on the work of Steinberg and Steinberg (2016), who explored primary-aged children's experiences in dance. While their study found that learners valued opportunities to make decisions about their movement concepts, the boys in the current study were not afforded similar autonomy. This absence of choice limited their ability to experience agency, an important feature of meaningful PE, and potentially reduced the meaningfulness of their engagement. Having input can be important for children, as it can empower and motivate them (Beni et al., 2021). Mattsson and Larsson (2020) found that when learners selected the music they moved to, it encouraged emotional connection through dance. Collaborative decision-making with peers, identified as a valued yet missing component in the current study, supports processes that recognise and build upon each learner's contributions, significantly shaping meaningful experiences in PE (Cardiff et al., 2024b; Nilges, 2004). Although the boys expressed a desire for such collaboration, they did not experience it in practice, highlighting a disconnect between their preferences and the pedagogical approaches observed. In a moment when Dean shared his preferences, stating, ‘We could be talking with each other and practising dance moves’, he expressed a preference for shifting some control away from the teacher. Similarly, there were limited opportunities for students to take ownership with others during the lessons, which created a point of tension for them:

Interviewer: So Pete, let's have a look at your emojis you feel before dance?

Pete: I put wow and angry, I don’t really like dance, I can’t do it, it's really hard and I only like it when we can think of our own dance. (FG2, Year 6, Peterhouse Primary)

Garrett and Wrench (2018: 98) note that when ‘children become passive receivers of information and are mostly required to keep still’, the gap between learner and content widens. This is especially problematic when the boys shared a strong desire to be active participants who take ownership of dance material and movement creation. Similar to the findings of Ní Chróinín et al. (2023), the boys would have valued the opportunity to create their dances, crafting a more personalised and meaningful experience. When learners collaborate with teachers to co-construct dance content, it provides them with a platform to be heard, which can foster feelings of empowerment. The boys’ limited sense of agency was particularly evident when asked what would make dance more meaningful. Tag remarked, ‘make it more fun, children pick a song, and they get a say in the dance’ (FG3, Peterhouse Primary), highlighting a desire for greater choice and involvement in shaping the learning experience. According to Iannucci and Parker (2022: 43), ‘children find their voice by using it’, and the boys wanted to be heard and become the drivers in their dances.

Critical moments can render learning experiences meaningless, prompting the boys to share a conviction for exploring alternative ways to engage with dance more enjoyably. The choreographing of meaningful dance through the ownership theme highlighted insight into how boys felt regarding approaches to dance. The boys shared a desire to create and own their dances, especially with others. Subsequently, a focus on choreographing meaningful dance through interactions will be discussed to support further intentions for ownership.

Choreographing meaningful dance through interactions

The importance of the ‘collective’ was evident across both schools. Alan at Gerald's Cross School spoke about working with others in dance and the importance of friendships, saying, ‘I need to be able to trust them, and also I like it when we’ve got a lot in common’. Physically and emotionally supporting one another through the creation of dances can elevate more positive responses between boys and girls (Payne and Costas, 2021). This is supported by Lee's sharing of his drawing (Figure 4) and accompanying narrative of how he would like to experience dance:

Interviewer: Shall we start having a look at yours Lee, what's in your picture?

Lee: Me and my four friends, we are waiting, the song's not on yet.

Interviewer: Is it important for you to dance with your friends?

Lee: Yeah, because if you don’t know who you’re with, you’re not prepared for them and I know my friends will help me. (FG1, Year 5, Peterhouse Primary)

Figure 4.

Lee's drawing of his desired experience of dance.

Understanding who they want to work with helps children find joy in having choices about their collaborators (Cardiff et al., 2023; Ní Chróinín et al., 2023). Steinberg and Steinberg (2016) emphasised that when learners collaborate with familiar partners, it enhances the affective domain (enjoyment) and their decision-making processes. Observations from dance lessons provided insights into the lesson climate:

The class is asked to find a space to stand in and are distanced from one another. They look around at each other, waiting, standing. They bring their focus on the teacher at the front when told to do so as the recalling of dance actions begins. The teacher asks questions to the class at varying points but there is no opportunity to discuss. (FN6, Year 6, Peterhouse Primary)

Supportive attitudes played a vital role in shaping social interactions in dance. Pete illustrated this by sharing his drawing (Figure 5) along with a narration that expressed his enthusiasm for working with a partner:

Pete: This is from a dance, that person's going to be a bit bigger; it's just like a bad drawing! [Laughs] But there's a dance that we did where we were in lines and the person that was next to us, they dropped on the floor and you had to help them up. It's dance where you’re constantly supporting each other to do different moves.

Interviewer: Ah, and you liked that interaction with other people during dance.

Pete: Yeah, I like that, it makes it feel better. (FG2, Year 6, Peterhouse Primary)

Figure 5.

Pete's drawing of his desired experience of dance.

Through observations, a closeness between the boys, especially at Gerald's Cross School during the dance lessons, was evident:

Eden signals a thumbs-up to Gerard who is behind him as he demonstrates with others some of the dance material learnt. This is followed by another pupil, Tre, who moves forwards to touch Gerard, patting him on the back, cupping his cheeks, and putting his arms around him. (FN1, Year 5, Gerald's Cross School)

The moment captured a sense of pride among some of the boys towards a peer, shown through gestures like thumbs-up and physical closeness, such as patting, cupping, and embracing. Children's ability to support each other can lead to positive outcomes. The boys aimed to work in supportive ways, which could result in more meaningful experiences when social interactions that foster creative cooperation are given consideration (Amado et al., 2016; Beni et al., 2017; Nilges, 2004). Their desire to have a say in how they worked is expressed even more strongly in the following example:

Interviewer: Why would talking with each other be so important in your dance lesson?

Dean: Well, because in dance, I think if you are talking with people in dance, I think it would boost your confidence a bit because we all know we’re not great at this, or we are great at this, and then if you’re doing it in your groups it could be really fun to see everybody experimenting with different dances.

Interviewer: Is that important for you, to work with other people?

Dean: Yeah, the social aspect of it would make it more enjoyable.

Interviewer: Anyone else want to share what they would like in their dance lessons?

Ged: To create our dance, create our song. Smaller amount of people in a group. Listen to people's points of view. I had one in my head … and we can go off in our little friend groups, into different parts, on different mats, then we can create our own dance. Then we’ll showcase it to the people in the class, and they will vote for which one is best. So, we’ll work on that dance for that song. (FG1, Year 5, Peterhouse Primary)

When learners collaboratively take ownership of lesson material, it can foster a sense of creative agency. This enhances their enjoyment and participation and helps them feel safe (Cardiff et al., 2023; Steinberg and Steinberg, 2016). Even though Kalen had limited opportunities to interact with others, he still expressed a strong sense of connection to dance when asked what he would say to a friend who loved dance:

Kalen: You should try dance because you’re more active, and you’re basically doing exercise as well, but it's more fun when you can dance with others. (FG1, Year 5, Gerald's Cross School)

The value of collaborating with others to pursue creative expression, particularly as a source of enjoyment, was a recurring theme. These much-desired learning experiences underscore the importance of PE practitioners actively listening to children's voices, fostering a more democratic and inclusive environment for learning.

Conclusion

To summarise, the study demonstrated the boys’ desire to challenge and reshape both the ‘what’ and the ‘how’ of their dance experiences, highlighting the essential need for educators to listen to their perspectives. It addressed the research aim by exploring what boys seek from their dance experiences and how they can be supported in finding meaning through dance. It is proposed that for activities, such as dance, to be experienced meaningfully, democratic decisions must be embedded. This allows boys (and girls) to navigate the delicate pleasures inscribed on bodies in PE (Gerdin and Larsson, 2018). The findings point to the need for authentic partnerships, where educators are brave in letting go of controlling content and affording collaborative moments between learners. Schools should be mindful of collaborative pedagogical practices between teachers and external agencies as they consider their PE curriculum. The externally employed dance specialists appeared to prioritise technical proficiency and recall, aligning with concerns raised by Risner and Barr (2015). Their educational backgrounds may limit the integration of diverse pedagogical approaches that support holistic learning outcomes beyond performance-focused goals. Creating a platform for emotional connections by encouraging students to explore their identities, collaborate with others, and share their thoughts can support more equitable and meaningful dance experiences. The current study highlighted how boys overcame barriers in expressing their preferences. Traditionally, traits such as creativity and expressiveness have been associated with femininity (Risner, 2014). However, the boys’ experiences in dance challenge these binary gender assumptions, demonstrating that both boys and girls seek opportunities for creative collaboration. These findings highlight how social support fosters creativity and expand our understanding of what children find meaningful in PE. Dance as an activity area can also be used to challenge and break down gendered assumptions within PE. This was evident through the methods used, particularly the emojis, which revealed the boys’ sense of disconnection and the perception that dance, as experienced in lessons, lacked personal relevance.

Observed dance pedagogy across both schools often emphasised passivity in the learning process. As Gard (2006) argues, when dance instruction focuses solely on technical skill and performance, it risks becoming a mechanical experience that limits opportunities for deeper, more meaningful engagement. In contrast, peer teaching has been identified as a valuable pedagogical tool that fosters a sense of togetherness among learners (Barr and Oliver, 2016). This aligns with the aspirations of the boys in the current study, who expressed a desire for more socially interactive and collaborative learning experiences. Such findings support Beni et al.'s (2017) argument that meaningful PE emerges when social interaction is prioritised. Collaborative approaches to dance can also contribute to the creation of what Steinberg and Steinberg (2016) describe as a ‘safe space’, an environment where learners feel free to be imaginative and derive enjoyment from the process. Teachers play a crucial role in cultivating such spaces by adopting a relational approach to pedagogy. Viewing teacher–student interactions as a ‘learning partnership’ (Martin et al., 2018) can help educators respond to children's natural inclination towards group work and shared creativity.

Planned group activities not only support social development but also provide opportunities for learners to co-construct ideas and work towards shared goals. Diversifying dance instruction through autonomy-supportive approaches where students are offered meaningful choices can further enhance engagement and ownership of learning (Smith et al., 2023). However, as Beni et al. (2021) caution, autonomy-supportive environments require planning, time, and professional guidance. Without these, efforts to democratise dance education may fall short of their transformative potential.

This paper addressed calls to discover how children voice their experiences of meaningfulness (Ní Chróinín et al., 2023) by focusing on the novel participatory WDSTE approach (Keane, 2021). The findings encourage educators to listen, respond mindfully, and embrace playfulness and creativity to support meaningful dance experiences. Further research is encouraged to explore what young people find meaningful in various activities in the PE curriculum, beyond just games. Future research should also seek to deepen understanding of the conditions under which social interactions foster creativity and enhance the meaningfulness of experiences in these settings.

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

I express my gratitude to the schools and young people who contributed to this research. I am thankful to my two exceptional supervisors for their unwavering belief and guidance throughout this journey. I also extend my sincere thanks to the reviewers and editor for their thoughtful feedback and support in shaping this paper.

ORCID iD

Helen Keane

Funding

The author received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Declaration of conflicting interests

The author declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Author biography

Helen Keane is the Programme Leader and a Senior Lecturer in Physical Education and School Sport at the University of Wolverhampton, England.

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Choreographing meaningfulness: Boys’ experiences of dance in primary school

Abstract

Keywords

Introduction

Dance in PE

Boys and dance

Methodology

Research design

Participants and dance unit context

Researcher positionality

Data collection

Phase 1: Non-participant observations

Phase 2: FGIs

Data analysis

Findings

Choreographing meaningful dance through ownership

Choreographing meaningful dance through interactions

Conclusion

Footnotes

Acknowledgements

ORCID iD

Funding

Declaration of conflicting interests

Author biography

References