This study examined the direction of causal flow between perceived positive general teacher feedback and perceived threat to sense of self in physical education (PE). The stability effect and stationarity of the relationship between these variables over the two-year period was tested. Students (N = 302) were administered questionnaire during class time in Grades 6 and 8 and two years later in Grades 8 and 10. The perceived threat to sense of self subscale from the Physical Education Learning Environment Scale (PELES), and perceived positive general feedback subscale from the Perceived Teacher’s Feedback (PTF) questionnaire were used. Results using structural equation modelling showed the high stability of perceived threat and low stability of perceived teacher feedback in PE over the two-year period, and suggest that low level of perceived threat is a significant determinant of high level of perceived positive teacher feedback. In addition, the model showed that relationship between perceived threat and perceived positive feedback within time points differed significantly over time.
Allen, J. B. and Howe, B. L. (1998) ‘Player Ability, Coach Feedback, and Female Adolescent Athletes’ Perceived Competence and Satisfaction’ , Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology20: 280-299 .
2.
Amorose, A. J. and Horn, T. S. (2000) ‘Intrinsic Motivation: Relationships with Collegiate Athletes’ Gender, Scholarship Status, and Perceptions of their Coaches’ Behavior’ , Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology22: 63-84 .
3.
Amorose, A. J. and Weiss, M. R. (1998) ‘Coaching Feedback as a Source of Information about Perceptions of Ability: A Developmental Examination’ , Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology20: 395-420 .
4.
Behets, D. (1997) ‘Comparison of More and Less Effective Teaching Behaviors in Secondary Physical Education’ , Teaching and Teacher Education13(2): 215-224 .
5.
Bentler, P. M. (1990) ‘Comparative Fit Indexes in Structural Models’ , Psychological Bulletin107: 238-246 .
6.
Biddle, S. (1997) ‘Cognitive Theories of Motivation and the Physical Self’, in K. Fox (ed.) The Physical Self, pp. 59-82. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
7.
Black, S. J. and Weiss, M. R. (1992) ‘The Relationship among Perceived Coaching Behaviors, Perceptions of Ability, and Motivation of in Competitive Age-Group Swimmers’ , Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology14: 309-325 .
8.
Brophy, J. E. (1987) ‘Sociology Students’ Motivation to Learn’, in M. Maehr and D. Kleiber (eds) Advances in Motivation and Achievement, pp. 181-220. Greenwich, CT: JAI Press .
9.
Cantell, M. H. , Smythe, M. M. and Ahonen, T. P. (1994) ‘Clumsiness in Adolescence: Educational, Motor, and Social Outcomes of Motor Delay Detected at 5 Years’ , Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly11: 115-129 .
10.
Crocker, J. (2002) ‘The Costs of Seeking Self-Esteem’ , Journal of Social Issues58(3): 597-615 .
11.
Crocker, J. and Wolfe, C. T. (2001) ‘Contingencies of Self-Worth’ , Psychological Review108: 593-623 .
12.
Cury, F. , Biddle S. , Famose, J.-P. , Goudas, M. , Sarrazin, P. and Durand, M. (1996) ‘Personal and Situational Factors Influencing Intrinsic Interest of Adolescent Girls in School Physical Education: A Structural Equation Modelling Analysis’ , Educational Psychology16: 305-315 .
13.
Deci, E. L. and Ryan, R. M. (1985) Intrinsic Motivation and Self-Determination in Human Behavior. New York: Plenum Press .
14.
Deci, E. L. and Ryan, R. M. (2000) ‘The “What” and “Why” of Goal Pursuits: Human Needs and the Self-Determination of Behavior’ , Psychological Inquiry11: 227-268 .
15.
Fan, X. , Thompson, B. and Wang, L. (1999) ‘The Effects of Sample Size, Estimation Methods, and Model Specification on SEM Fit Indices’ , Structural Equation Modeling6: 56-83 .
16.
Ferrer-Caja, E. and Weiss, M. R. (2000) ‘Predictors of Intrinsic Motivation among Adolescent Students in Physical Education’ , Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport71: 267-279 .
17.
Ferrer-Caja, E. and Weiss, M. R. (2002) ‘Cross-Validation of a Model of Intrinsic Motivation with Students Enrolled in High School Elective Courses’ , Journal of Experimental Education71: 41-65 .
18.
Fredenburg, K. B. , Lee, A. M. and Solmon, M. (2001) ‘The Effects of Augmented Feedback on Students’ Perceptions and Performance’ , Research Quarterly for Exercise and Sport72: 232-242 .
19.
Goudas, M. , Minardou, K. and Kotis, I. (2000) ‘Feedback Regarding Goal Achievement and Intrinsic Motivation’ , Perceptual and Motor Skills90: 810-812 .
20.
Graham, G. (1992) Teaching Children Physical Education: Becoming a Master Teacher. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
21.
Hertzog, C. and Nesselroade, J. R. (1987) ‘Beyond Autoregressive Models: Some Implications of the Trait-State Distinction for the Structural Modeling of Developmental Change’ , Child Development58: 93-109 .
22.
Hu, L. and Bentler, P. M. (1999) ‘Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria versus New Alternatives’ , Structural Equation Modeling6: 1-55 .
23.
Jöreskog, K. G. and Sörbom, D. (1996) LISREL 8: User’s Reference Guide. Chicago, IL: Scientific Software International .
24.
Koka, A. and Hein, V. (2003) ‘Perceptions of Teacher’s Feedback and Learning Environment as Predictors of Intrinsic Motivation in Physical Education’ , Psychology of Sport and Exercise4: 333-346 .
25.
Kowalski, K. C. , Crocker, P. R. E. , Kowalski, N. P. , Chad, K. E. and Louise Humbert, M. (2003) ‘Examining the Physical Self in Adolescent Girls over Time: Further Evidence against the Hierarchical Model’ , Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology25: 5-18 .
26.
Lee, A. M. , Keh, N. C. and Magill, R. A. (1993) ‘Instructional Effects of Teacher Feedback in Physical Education’ , Journal of Teaching in Physical Education12: 228-243 .
27.
Marsh, H. W. and Yeung, A. S. (1998) ‘Top-Down, Bottom-Up, and Horizontal Models: The Direction of Causality in Multidimensional, Hierarchical Self-Concept Models’ , Journal of Personality and Social Psychology75: 509-527 .
28.
Mawer, M. (1995) The Effective Teaching of Physical Education. London and New York: Longman .
29.
Mitchell, S. A. (1996) ‘Relationships between Perceived Learning Environment and Intrinsic Motivation in Middle School Physical Education’ , Journal of Teaching in Physical Education15: 369-383 .
30.
Mulaik, S. A. and Millsap, R. E. (2000) ‘Doing the Four-Step Right’ , Structural Equation Modeling7: 36-73 .
31.
Ntoumanis, N. (2001) ‘A Self-Determination Approach to the Understanding of Motivation in Physical Education’ , British Journal of Educational Psychology71: 225-242 .
32.
Peterson, P. and Swing, S. (1982) ‘Beyond Time on Task: Students’ Reports of their Thought Processes during Classroom Instruction’ , Elementary School Journal82: 481-491 .
33.
Peterson, P. L. , Swing, S. R. , Stark, K. D. and Waas, G. A. (1984) ‘Students’ Cognitions and Time on Task during Mathematics Instruction’ , American Educational Research Journal21: 487-515 .
34.
Ryan, R. M. and Deci, E. L. (2001) ‘On Happiness and Human Potentials: A Review of Research on Hedonic and Eudaimonic Well-Being’ , Annual Review of Psychology52: 141-166 .
35.
Schunk, D. H. (1995) ‘Self-Efficacy, Motivation, and Performance’ , Journal of Applied Sport Psychology7: 112-137 .
36.
Shoemaker, M. M. and Kalverboer, A. F. (1994) ‘Social and Affective Problems in Children who are Clumsy: How Early do they Begin?’ , Adapted Physical Activity Quarterly11: 130-140 .
37.
Silverman, S. (1994) ‘Communication and Motor Skill Learning: What we Learn from Research in the Gymnasium’ , Quest46: 345-355 .
38.
Tremblay, M. S. , Inman, J. W. and Willms, J. D. (2000) ‘The Relationship between Physical Activity, Self-Esteem, and Academic Achievement in 12-year-old Children’ , Pediatric Exercise Science12: 312-323 .
39.
Vallerand, R. J. (1997) ‘Toward a Hierarchical Model of Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation’, in M. P. Zanna (ed) Advances in Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 29, pp. 271-360. New York: Academic Press .
40.
Whitehead, J. R. and Corbin, C. B. (1997) ‘Self-Esteem in Children and Youth: The Role of Sport and Physical Education’, in K. R. Fox (ed.) The Physical Self: From Motivation to Well-Being, pp. 175-204. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics .
41.
Wittrock, M. C. (1986) ‘Students’ Thought Processes’, in M. C. Wittrock (ed.) Handbook on Research on Teaching (3rd edn), pp. 297-314. New York: Macmillan .
42.
Yawkley, T. D. (1980) The Self-Concept of the Young Child. Pennsylvania: Brigham Young University Press .
