Many reasons have been suggested for the lack of female participation in technologically complex digital game play. A previously unconsidered factor is that of cross-gender competition. Rigid gender divisions are the norm in most analog/traditional games and sports. Societal penalties for breaking these norms are severe for both males and females. This article suggests that the virtual certainty of cross-gender competition might be a factor in deterring females from digital game play. The ease of transgressing traditional play taboos in virtual words, however, allows both males and females to explore and possibly transform rigid gender configurations. Policy implications for using play as a way to break down stereotypes and encourage the participation of females are discussed.
Aauw (2000) Tech Savvy. Washington, DC: American Association of University Women Educational Foundation.
2.
Abbott, G. (2006) 'Women's High School Wrestling Continues Growth with CIF Regional Tournaments', TheMat.com (USA Wrestling), URL (accessed June 2008): http://www.themat.com/index.php?page=showarticle&ArticleID=13874
3.
Alix, A. (2007) 'Online Game Talk and the Articulation of Maleness', in FlowTV 5 (special issue on video games). University of Texas at Austin. URL (accessed June 2008): http://flowtv.org/?p=53
4.
Bertozzi, E. (2003) 'At Stake: Play, Pleasure and Power in Cyberspace' , PhD dissertation, European Graduate School, URL (accessed June 2008): http://www.egs.edu/resources/elena-bertozzi.html
5.
Bertozzi, E. and Lee, S. (2007) 'Not Just Fun and Games: Digital Play, Gender and Attitudes Towards Technology', Women's Studies in Communication30(2): 179-204.
6.
Broverman, I.K., Vogel, S.R., Broverman, D.M., Clarkson, F.E. and Rosenkrantz, P.S. (1972) 'Sex Role Stereotypes: A Current Appraisal', Journal of Social Issues28(2): 59-78.
7.
Butler, J. (1990) Gender Trouble: Feminism and the Subversion of Identity. New York: Routledge.
8.
Cassell, J. and Jenkins, H. (1998) From Barbie to Mortal Kombat: Gender and Computer Games. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press .
9.
Castronova, E. (2003) The Price of 'Man' and 'Woman': A Hedonic Pricing Model of Avatar Attributes in a Synthetic World (CESifo Working Paper Series No. 957). Munich: CESifo.
10.
CNN (2003) CNN Newsnight with Aaron Brown, 22 May, URL (accessed May 2003): http:// transcripts.cnn.com/TRANSCRIPTS/0305/22/asb.00.html
11.
CNN (2004) 'University Asks Police to Look Into Alleged Rape', URL (accessed 5 December 2005): http://www.cnn.com/2004/US/Central/02/18/colorado.football/
12.
Connell, R.W. (1987) Gender and Power: Society, the Person and Sexual Politics. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
13.
Conway, M. and Vartanian, L.R. (2000) 'A Status Account of Gender Stereotypes: Beyond Communality and Agency', Sex Roles43(3-4): 499-528.
14.
DeBoer, K.J. (2004) Gender and Competition: How Men and Women Approach Work and Play Differently. Monterey, CA: Coaches Choice.
15.
Dillon, B. (2006) E3 Panel: 'Analyzing World Markets', Gamasutra Industry News, URL (accessed June 2008): http://www.gamasutra.com/php-bin/news_index.php?story=9298
16.
Dowling, C. (2000) The Frailty Myth. New York: Random House.
17.
Gary, L.A., Hinmon, S. and Ward, C.A. (2003) 'The Face as a Determining Factor for Social Manipulation: Relational Aggression, Sociometric Status, and Facial Appearance', Colgate University Journal of the Sciences, pp. 93-114, URL (accessed June 2008): http://groups.colgate.edu/cjs/student_papers/2003/Garyetal.pdf
18.
Hack, D. (2006) 'Dealing with the Wind is a Challenge in Hawaii' , New York Times Sports Section, Sunday 15 January: 2.
19.
Hargreaves, J.A. (1990) 'Gender on the Sports Agenda', International Review for the Sociology of Sport25(4): 287-307.
20.
Heintz-Knowles, D.K. (2001) Fair Play? Violence, Gender and Race in Video Games . Oakland, CA: Children Now.
21.
Herring, S. (2001) 'Gender and Power in Online Communication', CSI Working Paper no. WP-01-05, URL (accessed June 2008): http://rkcsi.indiana.edu/archive/CSI/WP/WP01-05B.html
22.
Huizinga, J. (1955) Homo Ludens: A Study of the Play-Element in Culture . Boston, MA: Beacon Press.
23.
Jeffrey, T. (2004) 'Ban Girls from Football', Townhall.com, URL (accesed June 2008): http://www.townhall.com/columnists/TerenceJeffrey/2004/02/26/ban_girls_from_football
24.
Kramer, V., Konrad, A. and Erkut, S. (2006) 'Critical Mass on Corporate Boards: Why Three or More Women Enhance Governance', available from Wellesely Centers for Women's Publications, URL (accessed June 2008): http://www.wcwonline.org/
25.
Lehtonen, E. (2007) In-person interview and email communication with author. (Lehtonen is a World of Warcraft Guild member; character: Jaspre, title: Ascent Position: 2nd Officer.)
26.
Levy, A. (2005) Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture. New York: Free Press.
27.
Lucas, K. and Sherry, J.L. (2004) 'Sex Differences in Video Game Play: A Communication-Based Explanation', Communication Research31(5): 499-523.
28.
Markula, P. (2001) 'Beyond the Perfect Body: Women's Body Image Distortion in Fitness Magazine Discourse', Journal of Sport and Social Issues25(2): 158-79.
29.
Martin, C.L. and Ruble, D. (2004) 'Children's Search for Gender Cues: Cognitive Perspectives on Gender Development', Current Directions in Psychological Science13(2): 67-70.
30.
Mclain, D.L. (2005) 'Sex and Chess. Is She a Queen or a Pawn?', New York Times 27 November: 1.
31.
Messner, M. (2002) Taking the Field: Women, Men, and Sports. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press .
32.
Microsoft (2004) 'Women Get in the Game', Microsoft, URL (accessed June 2008): http://www.microsoft.com/presspass/features/2004/jan04/01-08womengamers.mspx
33.
Nelson, M.B. (1994) The Stronger Women Get, the More Men Love Football: Sexism and the American Culture of Sports. New York: Harcourt Brace.
34.
Oxford, N. (2005) 'Venus or Mars: The Uneasy Relationship Between Gaming and Gender', 1up, URL (accessed June 2008): http://www.1up.com/do/feature?cId=3141723
35.
Ray, S.G. (2004) Gender Inclusive Game Design: Expanding the Market . Boston, MA: Charles River Media .
36.
Roberts, S. (2005) A Necessary Spectacle: Billie Jean King, Bobby Riggs, and the Tennis Match that Leveled the Game. New York: Crown Publishers.
37.
Roth, A. (2004) 'Femininity, Sports, and Feminism', Journal of Sport and Social Issues28(3): 245-65.
38.
Ryan, J. (1995) Little Girls in Pretty Boxes: The Making and Breaking of Elite Gymnasts and Figure Skaters. New York: Doubleday.
Serbin, L.A., Poulin-Dubois, D., Colburne, K.A., Sen, M.G. and Eichstedt, J.A. (2001) 'Gender Stereotyping in Infancy: Visual Preferences for and Knowledge of Gender-Stereotypical Toys in the Second Year', International Journal of Behavioral Development25(1): 7-15.
41.
Simmons, R. (2002) Odd Girl Out: the hidden culture of aggression in girls. New York: Harcourt Inc .
42.
Slimmer, J. (2007) 'Kings, Queens, and Jackasses: Playing with Gender in Online Poker', FlowTV5 (special issue on video games). University of Texas at Austin, URL (accessed June 2008): http://flowtv.org/?p=52
43.
Spencer, S.J., Steele, C.M. and Quinn, D.M. (1999) 'Stereotype Threat and Women's Math Performance' , Journal of Experimental Social Psychology35(1): 4-28.
44.
Steele, C.M. (1997) 'A Threat in the Air: How Stereotypes Shape Intellectual Identity and Performance', American Psychologist52(6): 613-29.
45.
Taylor, T.L. (2006) Play Between Worlds: Exploring Online Game Culture . Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
46.
Tiggemann, M. and Williamson, S. (2000) 'The Effect of Exercise on Body Satisfaction and Self-Esteem as a Function of Gender and Age', Sex Roles43(1-2): 119-27.
47.
Tolman, D.L., Spencer, R., Rosen-Reynoso, M. and Porche, M.V. (2003) 'Sowing the Seeds of Violence in Heterosexual Relationships: Early Adolescents Narrate Compulsory Heterosexuality', Journal of Social Issues59(1): 159-78.
48.
Vesterby, T. (2005) 'Speak Softly and Carry a Big Gun: A Case Study of Professional Female Danish Counter-Strike Players', Masters in Design, Communication and Mediathesis, University of Copenhagen .
49.
Vincent, N. (2006) Self-Made Man: One Woman's Journey Into Manhood And Back Again. New York: Viking .
50.
Waem, A., Larsson, A. and Neren, C. (2005) 'Gender Aspects on Computer Game Avatars', paper presented at the ACM SIGCHI International Conference on Advances in Computer Entertainment Technology at the Swedish Institute of Computer Science, Valencia Spain, URL (accessed June 2008): ftp://ftp.sics.se/pub/SICS-reports/Reports/SICS-T-2005-06-SE.pdf
51.
Ward, G.C. (2004) Unforgivable Blackness: The Rise and Fall of Jack Johnson. New York: A.A. Knopf.
52.
Weisfeld, G.E., Bloch, S.A. and Ives, J.W. (1984) 'Possible Determinants of Social Dominance Among Adolescent Girls', Journal of Genetic Psychology144(1): 115-29.
53.
Williams, A. (2006) 'Before Spring Break, the Anorexic Challenge', New York Times Sunday Styles 2. April: 1.
54.
Yalom, M. (2004) Birth of the Chess Queen: A History. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
55.
Yee, N. (2004) 'Avatar: Use/Conceptualization and Looking Glass Self'Terranova Blog, URL (accessed 17 May 2006): http://terranova.blogs.com/terra_nova/2004/01/the_avatar_and_.html
56.
Yee, N. (2006) 'WoW Gender-Bending'Daedalus Project , URL (accessed 2 April 2006): http://www.nickyee.com/daedalus/archives/001369.php
