Recent scholarship in the field of party organization has focused attention on questions of adaptation and change. This article isolates one component of change - innovation - and develops that concept. It proposes a general model linking organizational innovation in political parties to changes in party environments. Further, it is demonstrated how this model may be operationalized. Finally, potential problems of measurement and data collection are discussed and collective strategies proposed.
Aldrich, Howard (1979) Organizations and Environments. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.
2.
Appleton, Andrew (1995) `Formal Versus Informal Rules of Party Politics: the Case of France', in K. Lawson (ed.) How Parties Work: Perspectives From Within. New York: Praeger.
3.
Appleton, Andrew and Daniel S. Ward (1993) `Party Transformation in France and the United States: the Hierarchical Effects of System Change in Comparative Perspective', Comparative Politics26: 69-98.
4.
Appleton, Andrew and Daniel S. Ward (1994a) `Party Organizational Response to Electoral Change: Texas and Arkansas', American Review of Politics15: 191-212.
5.
Appleton, Andrew and Daniel S. Ward (1994b) `Understanding Organizational Innovation and Party Building', in J. Green and D. Shea (eds) The State of the Parties. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
6.
Appleton, Andrew and Daniel S. Ward (1995) `Using Party Records in the Study of Organization: A Survey of State Archives', State and Local Government Review27: 137-143.
7.
Bibby, John F. , Cornelius Cotter, James Gibson and Robert Huckshorn (1983a) `Parties in State Politics', in V. Gray, H. Jacob and K. Vines (eds) Politics in the American States, 4th edn.Boston, MA: Little, Brown.
8.
Bibby, John F. , James Gibson, Cornelius Cotter and Robert Huckshorn (1983b) `Trends in Party Organizational Strength, 1960-1980.'International Political Science Review4: 21-28.
9.
Cotter, Cornelius and John Bibby (1980) `Institutional Development of Parties and the Thesis of Party Decline', Political Science Quarterly95: 1-27.
10.
Cotter, Cornelius , James Gibson, John Bibby and Robert Huckshorn (1989) Party Organizations in American Politics. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
11.
Crotty, William (1983) Party Reform. New York: Longman.
12.
Crotty, William (1991) `Political Parties: Issues and Trends', in William Crotty (ed.) Political Science: Looking to the Future. Evanston, IL: Northwestern University Press.
13.
Dalton, Russell (1985) `Political Parties and Political Representation: Party Supporters and Party Elites in Nine Nations', Comparative Political Studies18: 267-299.
14.
Epstein, Leon (1980) Political Parties in Western Democracies. New Brunswick, NJ: Transaction Books.
15.
Epstein, Leon (1986) Political Parties in the American Mold. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Press.
16.
Ersson, Svante and Jan-Erik Lane (1987) Politics and Society in Western Europe. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
17.
Frantzich, Stephen (1989) Political Parties in the Technological Age. New York: Longman.
18.
Gibson, James L. , Cornelius Cotter, John Bibby and Robert Huckshorn (1985) `Whither the Local Parties? A Cross Sectional and Longitudinal Analysis of the Strength of Party Organization', American Journal of Political Science29: 139-161.
19.
Gibson, James L. , Cornelius Cotter, John Bibby and Robert Huckshorn (1983) `Assessing Party Organizational Strength', American Journal of Political Science27: 193-222.
20.
Harmel, Robert and Kenneth Janda (1982) Parties and Their Environments: Limits to Reform?New York: Longman.
21.
Harmel, Robert and Kenneth Janda (1994) `An Integrated Theory of Party Goals and Party Change', Journal of Theoretical Politics6: 259-287.
22.
Harmel, Robert , Kenneth Janda, Uk Heo and Alexander Tan (1993) `Performance, Leadership, Factions, and Party Change: An Empirical Analysis', paper prepared for presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington, 2-5 September.
23.
Holbrook, Thomas and Emily Van Dunk (1993) `Electoral Competition in the American States', American Political Science Review87: 955-962.
24.
Huckshorn, Robert , Cornelius Cotter, John Bibby and James Gibson (1986) `Party Integration and Party Organizational Strength', Journal of Politics48: 976-991.
25.
Huntington, Samuel (1965) `Political Development and Political Decay', World Politics17: 386-430.
26.
Janda, Kenneth (1980) Political Parties: A Cross-National Survey. New York: The Free Press.
27.
Janda, Kenneth (1983) `Cross-National Measures of Party Organizations and Organizational Theory', European Journal of Political Research11: 319-332.
28.
Janda, Kenneth (1993) `Comparative Political Parties: Research and Theory', in A. Finifter (ed.) Political Science: The State of the Discipline. Washington, DC: American Political Science Association.
29.
Katz, Richard S. and Peter Mair (1990) `The Official Story: A Framework for the Comparative Study of Party Organization and Organizational Change', paper prepared for presentation at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, San Francisco.
30.
Katz, Richard S. and Peter Mair, eds (1992) Party Organizations: A Data Handbook on Party Organizations in Western Democracies, 1960-90. London: Sage.
31.
Kesselman, Mark (1966) `French Local Politics: A Statistical Examination of Grass Roots Consensus', American Political Science Review60: 963-973.
32.
Key, V. O (1949) Southern Politics in State and Nation. New York. Knopf.
33.
King, Gary , Robert O. Keohane and Sidney Verba (1995) Scientific Inference in Qualitative Research. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
34.
Knight, K (1967) `A Descriptive Model of the Intra-Firm Innovation Process', Journal of Business40: 478-496.
35.
Laakso, Maarkuu and Rein Taagepera (1979) `Effective Number of Parties: A Measure With Application to Western Europe', Comparative Political Studies12: 3-27.
36.
March, James and H. Simon (1959) Organizations. New York: Wiley.
37.
Meyer, John and Brian Rowan (1981) `Institutionalized Organizations: Formal Structure as Myth and Ceremony', in Mary Zey-Ferrell and Michael Aiken (eds) Complex Organizations: Critical Perspectives. Glenview, IL: Scott Foresman and Co.
38.
Molinar, Juan (1991) `Counting the Number of Parties: An Alternative Index', American Political Science Review85: 1383-1391.
39.
Offerlé, Michel (1987) Les partis politiques. Paris: PUF.
40.
Panebianco, Angelo (1988) Political Parties: Organization and Power. New York: Cambridge University Press.
41.
Pride, Richard (1970) Origins of Democracy: A Cross-National Study of Mobilization, Party Systems, and Democratic Stability. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage.
42.
Rae, Douglas (1967) The Political Consequences of Electoral Laws. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.
43.
Ranney, Austin (1976) `Parties in State Politics', in Herbert Jacob and Kenneth Vines (eds) Politics in the American States, 3rd edn.Boston, MA: Little, Brown and Co.
44.
Reif, Karl-Heinz , ed. (1985) Ten European Elections: Campaigns and Results of the 1979/81 First Direct Elections to the European Parliament. Brookfield, VT: Gower.
45.
Sabato, Larry (1981) The Rise of the Political Consultants. New York: Basic Books.
46.
Sartori, Giovanni (1976) Parties and Party Systems: A Framework For Analysis. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
47.
Schlesinger, Joseph (1991) Political Parties and the Winning of Office. Ann Arbor. MI: University of Michigan Press.
48.
Schonfeld, William (1983) `Political Parties: the Functional Approach and the Structural Alternative'. Comparative Politics15(4): 477-499.
49.
Scott, William (1961) `Organization Theory: An Overview and Appraisal', Journal of the Academy of Management4: 1.
50.
Selle, Per and Lars Svåsand (1991) `Membership in Party Organizations and the Problem of the Decline of Parties', Comparative Political Studies23: 459-477.
51.
Sorauf, Frank (1980) Party Politics in America. Boston, MA: Little Brown.
52.
Strøm, Kaare (1990) `A Behavioral Theory of Competitive Political Parties', American Journal of Political Science34: 565-598.
53.
Wellhofer, E. Spencer (1979) `The Effectiveness of Party Organization: A Cross-National Time Series Analysis', European Journal for Political Research7: 205-225.
54.
Wildgen, John (1971) `The Measurement of Hyperfractionalization', Comparative Political Studies4: 233-243.
55.
Wilson, James Q. (1966) `Innovation in Organizations: Notes Towards a Theory', in James Thompson (ed.) Approaches To Organizational Design. Pittsburgh, PA: University of Pittsburgh Press.
56.
Wolinetz, Steven (1988) `Party System Change: Past, Present, Future', in Steven Wolinetz (ed.) Parties and Party Systems in Liberal Democracies. New York: Routledge.
57.
Zaltman, Gerald , Robert Duncan and Jonny Holbek (1973) Innovations and Organizations. New York: John Wiley and Sons.