In this article we reassess the thesis of Lipset and Rokkan in a non-European context and thereby seek to contribute to the understanding of the relationship between social divisions and party creation. Political parties are usually generated by the politicization of social cleavages that exist within societies. The critical question is why certain divisions become politicized and others do not. Using the Philippines as a case study, we seek to explain how acute social dissensions could fail to give rise to competitive political parties. We contend that certain institutional forms could significantly influence whether social conflicts are translated into political form.
Adriano, Fermin (1992) 'From Theory to Reality: The Vision of Political Parties', in Philippine Center for Investigative Journalism and Ateneo Center for Social Policy (ed.) 1992 and Beyond: Forces and Issues in Philippine Elections. Manila: PCIJ and ACSSPA .
2.
Agoncillo, Teodoro and Milagros Guerrero (1970) History of the Filipino People. Quezon City: R. P. Garcia Publishing Company .
3.
Aldrich, John (1995) Why Parties? The Origins and Transformation of Political Parties in America. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
4.
Alejo, Myrna , Maria Rivera and Noel Valencia (1996) (De) Scribing Elections. Manila: Institute for Popular Democracy .
5.
Anderson, Benedict (1988) 'Cacique Democracy and the Philippines: Origins and Dreams' , New Left Review169: 3–33 .
6.
Cala, Cesar (1996) 'Publisher's Note', in Myrna Alejo , Maria Rivera and Noel Valencia (eds) (De) Scribing Elections. Manila: IPD .
7.
Che Man, W. K. (1990) Muslim Separatism. Singapore: Oxford .
8.
Cullinane, Michael (1989) 'Ilustrado Politics: The Response of the Filipino Educated Elite to American Colonial Rule, 1898–1907'. PhD Dissertation, University of Michigan.
9.
De Venecia, Jose (1995) 'Role of Political Parties – Experience of Lakas-NUCDUMDP', in Leopoldo Dejillas (ed.) Role of Political Parties in Government and Society. Manila: Institute for Development Research and Studies .
10.
Dejillas, Leopoldo (ed.) (1995) Role of Political Parties in Government and Society. Manila: Institute for Development Research and Studies .
11.
Duverger, Maurice (1954) Political Parties: Their Organization and Activity in the Modern State. New York: Methuen .
12.
Eisenstandt, S. N. and Rene Lemarchand (1981) Political Clientelism, Patronage, and Development. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage .
13.
Eisenstadt, S. N. and L. Roniger (1984) Patrons, Clients and Friends: Interpersonal Relationships and Structure of Trust in Society. New York: Cambridge University Press .
14.
Farrell, David (2001) Electoral Systems. New York: Palgrave .
15.
George, T. J. (1980) Revolt in Mindanao: The Rise of Islam in Philippine Politics. Oxford: Oxford University Press .
16.
Golay, Frank (1998) Face of Empire: United States–Philippine Relations 1898– 1946. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Center for Southeast Asian Studies .
17.
Gould, S. J. (????) 'Institutionalism', in Verdon Bogdanor (ed.) The Blackwell Encyclopedia of Political Institutions. Oxford: Blackwell .
18.
Gowing, Peter (1979) Muslim Filipinos: Society and Culture. Quezon City: New Day .
19.
Grossholtz, Jean (1964) Politics in the Philippines. Boston, MA: Little Brown .
20.
Guerrero, Amado (1979) Philippine Society and Revolution. US: International Association of Filipino Patriots .
21.
Gutierrez, Eric (1994) The Ties That Bind: A Guide to Family, Business, and Other Interests in the Ninth House of Representatives. Manila: PCIJ .
22.
Gutierrez, Eric (2000) 'The Reimagination of the Bangsa Moro: 30 Years Hence', in Kristian Gaerlan and Mara Stankovich (eds) Rebels, Warlords and Ulama: A Reader on Muslim Separatism in Southern Philippines. Quezon City: Institute of Popular Democracy .
23.
Hall, Peter and Rosemary Taylor (1996) 'Political Science and the Three Institutionalisms' , Political Studies44: 936–957 .
24.
Hartmann, Christof , Graham Hassall and Soliman Santos (2001) 'Philippines', in Dieter Nohlen , Florian Grotz and Christof Hartman (eds) Elections in Asia and the Pacific: A Data Handbook, Volume II. Oxford: Oxford University Press .
25.
Horowitz, Donald (1985) Ethnic Groups in Conflict. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press .
26.
Hutchcroft, Paul (2000) 'Colonial Masters, National Politicos and Provincial Lords: Central Authority and Local Autonomy in the American Philippines 1900–1913' , Journal of Asian Studies59: 277–306 .
27.
Hutchcroft, Paul (forthcoming) 'Reflections on a Reverse Image: South Korea Under Park Chung Hee and the Philippines under Ferdinand Marcos', in Byung-Kook Kim and Ezra Vogel (eds) The Park Era, Volume I.
28.
Hutchcroft, Paul and Joel Rocamora (2002) 'Strong Demands and Weak Institutions: Addressing the Democratic Deficit in the Philippines' , Journal of East Asian Studies3: 259–292 .
29.
Inglehart, Ronald (1977) The Silent Revolution: Changing Values and Political Styles Among Western Publics. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
30.
Inglehart, Ronald (1990) Culture Shift in Advanced Industrial Society. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
31.
Inglehart, Ronald (1997) Modernization and Postmodernization: Cultural, Economic and Political Change in 43 Societies. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press .
32.
Jones, Greg (1989) Red Revolution. Boulder, CO: Westview Press .
33.
Katz, Richard S. and Peter Mair (2002) 'The Ascendancy of the Party in Public Office: Party Organizational Change in Twentieth-Century Democracies', in Richard Gunther , Jose Ramon Montero and Juan J. Linz (eds) Political Parties: Old Concepts and New Challenges. Oxford: Oxford University Press .
34.
Kerkvliet, Benedict (1977) The Huk Rebellion. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press .
35.
Kimura, Masataka (1990) 'Philippine Peasant and Labor Organizations in Electoral Politics: Players of Transitional Politics' , Journal of Philippine Politics29–78 .
36.
Kitschelt, Herbert et al. (1999) Post-Communist Party Systems: Competition, Representation, and Inter-Party Cooperation. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
37.
Knutsen, Oddbjorn and Elinor Scarbrough (1995) 'Cleavage Politics', in Ian Van Deth and Elinor Scarbrough (eds) Beliefs in Government: The Impact of Values. Oxford: Oxford University Press .
38.
Lande, Carl (1996) Post-Marcos Politics: A Geographical and Statistical Analysis of the 1992 Presidential Elections. Manila: De la Salle University Press .
39.
Lande, Carl (1969) 'Brief History of Philippine Political Parties', in Jose Abueva and Raul de Guzman (eds) Foundations and Dynamics of Filipino Government and Politics. Manila: Bookmark .
40.
Levi, Margaret (1990) 'A Logic of Institutional Change', in K. S. Cook and Margaret Levi (eds) Limits of Rationality. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
41.
Liang, Dapen (1939) The Development of Philippine Political Parties. Hong Kong: South China Morning Post .
42.
Lipset, Seymour and Stein Rokkan (1967) 'Cleavage Structures, Party Systems, and Voter Alignments: An Introduction', in Seymour Lipset and Stein Rokkan (eds) Party Systems and Voter Alignments: Cross National Perspectives. New York: Free Press .
43.
Machado, Kit (1974) 'From Traditional Faction to Machine: Changing Patterns of Political Leadership and Organization in Rural Philippines' , Journal of Asian Studies33: 523–547 .
44.
Mahoney, John (2000) 'Path Dependence in Historical Sociology' , Theory and Society29: 507–548 .
45.
Mahoney, John and Dietrich Rueschemeyer (2003) Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press .
46.
Mahoney, James and Dietrich Rueschemeyer (2003) 'Comparative Historical Analysis: Achievement and Agendas', in James Mahoney and Dietrich Rueschemeyer (eds) Comparative Historical Analysis in the Social Sciences. New York: Cambridge University Press .
47.
Majul, Cesar (1999) Muslims in the Philippines. Quezon City: UP Press .
48.
Magno, Alex (1992) 'In the Grip of Elite Politics', in Randolf David and Jonathan Okamura (eds) The Philippine Political and Economic Situation in View of 1992. Quezon City: UHM .
49.
Manacsa, Rodelio (1999) 'The Formal Structures for Political Participation: The Electoral and Party Systems in the Philippines', in Politics and Governance: Theory and Practice in the Philippine Context. Department of Political Science, Ateneo de Manila University. Quezon City: Office of Research and Publications .
50.
March, James and Johan Olsen (1983) 'The New Institutionalism: Organizational Factors in Political Life' , American Political Science Review77: 281–296 .
51.
March, James and Johan Olsen (1989) Rediscovering Institutions. New York: Free Press .
52.
Moshe, Maor (1997) Political Parties and Party Systems: Comparative Approaches and the British Experience. New York: Routledge .
53.
McCoy, Alfred (1994) An Anarchy of Families: State and Family in the Philippines. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin Center for Southeast Asian Studies .
54.
Mercado, Eliseo (1987) 'Ethnicity and National Unity' , Dansalan Quarterly8: 94–101 .
55.
Montinola, Gabriella (1999) 'Parties and Accountability in the Philippines' , Journal of Democracy10: 126–140 .
56.
Moreno, Alejandro (1997) Political Cleavages. Oxford: Westview Press .
57.
Muslim, Macapado (1992) 'Historical Roots of the Contemporary Armed Struggle in the Philippines' , Dansalan Quarterly12: 3–58 .
58.
North, Douglass (1990) Institutions, Institutional Change, and Economic Performance. New York: Cambridge University Press .
59.
Ostrom, Elinor (1986) 'An Agenda for the Study of Institutions' , Public Choice48: 3–25 .
60.
Patino, Patrick (1998) 'The Color of Money: Elections and Big Business' , Conjuncture10: 12–15 .
61.
Philippine Supreme Court (2001) Decision on Ang Bagong Bayani-OFW Labor Party v. COMELEC. G.R. No. 147599, 26 June.
62.
Pierson, Paul (2000) 'Increasing Returns, Path Dependence and the Study of Politics' , American Political Science Review94: 73–93 .
63.
Popkin, Samuel (1979) The Rational Peasant: The Political Economy of Rural Society in Vietnam. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press .
64.
Przeworski, Adam and John Sprague (1977) 'A History of Western European Socialism' . Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the American Political Science Association, Washington DC.
Rivera, Temario (1991) 'Class, the State and Foreign Capital: The Politics of Philippine Industrialization 1950–1986', PhD Dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
67.
Rocamora, Joel (2000) 'Formal Democracy and Its Alternatives in the Philippines: Parties, Elections and Social Movements' . Paper presented at the Conference on Democracy and Civil Society in Asia at Queen's University, Canada.
68.
Rocamora, Joel (2002) 'Political Parties in Constitutional Reform'. Available at http://www.tni.org/archives/rocamora/parties.htm (16 May 2003).
69.
Rodriguez, Agustin and Djorina Velasco (2000) Democracy Rising. Manila: Institute of Popular Democracy .
70.
Rommele, Andrea (1999) 'Cleavage Structures and Party Systems in East and Central Europe', in Kay Lawson , Andrea Rommele and Georgi Karasimeonov (eds) Cleavage, Parties, and Voters. London: Praeger .
71.
Rood, Steven (2002) 'Elections as Complicated and Important Events in the Philippines', in John Fuh-Sheng Hsieh and David Newman (eds) How Asia Votes. New York: Chatham House Publishers .
72.
Rose, Richard (ed.) (1974) Electoral Behaviour: A Comparative Handbook. New York: Free Press .
73.
Rothstein, Bo (1998) 'Political Institutions: An Overview', in Robert Goodin and Hans-Dieter Klingemann (eds) New Handbook of Political Science. Oxford: Oxford University Press .
74.
Rueschemeyer, Dietrich , Evelyn Stephens and John Stephens (1992) Capitalist Development and Democracy. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
75.
Sartori, Giovanni (1997) Comparative Constitutional Engineering. New York: New York University Press .
76.
Saulo, Alfredo (1969) Communism in the Philippines. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press .
77.
Scott, John (1976) Moral Economy of the Peasant. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press .
78.
Shirmer, David and Stephen Shalom (1987) The Philippine Reader. Quezon City: Ken .
79.
Sidel, John (1999) Capital, Coercion and Crime: Bossism in the Philippines. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press .
80.
Tancangco, Luzviminda (1988) 'The Electoral System and Political Parties on the Philippines', in Raul de Guzman and Mila Reforma (eds) Government and Politics in the Philippines. Singapore: Oxford University Press .
81.
Thelen, Kathleen (1999) 'Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics' , Annual Review of Political Science2: 369–404 .
82.
Thelen, Kathleen and Sven Steinmo (1992) 'Historical Institutionalism in Comparative Politics', in Sven Steinmo , Kathleen Thelen and Frank Longstreth (eds) Structuring Politics. New York: Cambridge University Press .
83.
Timberman, David (1991) A Changeless Land: Continuity and Change in Philippine Politics. Philippines: ISAS .
84.
Wurfel, David (1988) Filipino Politics: Development and Decay. Quezon City: Ateneo de Manila University Press .
85.
Wurfel, David (1998) 'The Party-List Election: Sectoral Failure or National Success?'Political Brief6: 1–5 .
