Communications technology, many analysts proclaim, heralds a profoundly transformed new world where time and space take on new meanings. As a result, networks of non-state actors proliferate, altering the functions of international organizations and creating new pressures on states. Yet previous eras also witnessed social activists pursuing their agendas through and around national governments. Then as now, social forces and global norms impinged on states with vitality and independence. The experiences of abolitionists and anti-apartheid activists demonstrate how transnational social movements in two different centuries mobilized across national boundaries around issues of race — despite barriers of time, distance and culture. This comparison provides the basis for disaggregating types of non-state actors in world politics and for understanding better the links between social activism and global normative change.
Adler, Emanuel
(1992) `The Emergence of Cooperation: National Epistemic Communities and the International Evolution of the Idea of Nuclear Arms Control', International Organization46(1): 101-145.
2.
Arrighi, Giovanni
, Terence K. Hopkins, and Immanuel Wallerstein (1991) `Dilemmas of Antisystemic Movements', in Richard A. Falk, Samuel S. Kim and Saul H. Mendlovitz (eds), The United Nations and a Just World Order, pp. 16-28. Boulder, CO: Westview.
3.
Bernstein, Hilda
(1994) The Rift: The Exile Experience of South Africans. London: Jonathan Cape.
4.
Bissell, Richard
(1977) Apartheid and International Organizations. Boulder, CO: Westview.
5.
Black, David
(1999a) `The Long and Winding Road: International Norms and Domestic Political Change in South Africa', in Thomas Risse, Stephen C. Ropp, and Kathryn Sikkink (eds) The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change, pp. 78-108. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
6.
Black, David
(1999b) ` “Not Cricket”: The Effects and Effectiveness of the Sport Boycott', in Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz (eds) How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa, pp. 213-231. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
7.
Blackburn, Robin
(1988) The Overthrow of Colonial Slavery, 1776-1848. London: Verso.
8.
Blackett, R.J.M.
(1983) Building an Antislavery Wall: Black Americans in the Atlantic Abolitionist Movement, 1830-1860. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
9.
Boli, John
and George M. Thomas (eds) (1999) Constructing World Culture: International Nongovernmental Organizations since 1875. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.
10.
Broad, Robin
and John Cavanagh (2000) `Global Backlash: Citizen Initiatives to Counter Corporate-Led Globalization', in Paul Wapner and Lester Edwin Ruiz (eds) Principled World Politics: The Challenge of Normative International Relations, pp. 191-207. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
11.
Brysk, Alison
(1993) `From Above and Below: Social Movements, the International System, and Human Rights in Argentina', Comparative Political Studies26(3): 259-285.
12.
Brysk, Alison
(1996) `Turning Weakness into Strength: The Internationalization of Indian Rights', Latin American Perspectives23(2): 38-57.
13.
Bull, Hedley
(1977) The Anarchical Society. New York: Columbia University Press.
14.
Clark, Ann Marie
, Elisabeth J. Friedman and Kathryn Hochstetler (1998) `The Sovereign Limits of Global Civil Society: A Comparison of NGO Participation in UN World Conferences on the Environment, Human Rights, and Women', World Politics51(1): 1-35.
15.
Crawford, Neta C.
and Audie Klotz (eds) (1999) How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
16.
Davis, David Brion
(1984) Slavery and Human Progress. New York: Oxford University Press.
17.
Deibert, Ronald J.
(1997) Parchment, Printing, and Hypermedia: Communication in World Order Transformation. New York: Columbia University Press.
18.
della Porta
, Donatella, Hanspeter Kriesi and Dieter Rucht (eds) (1999) Social Movements in a Globalizing World. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
19.
DeSombre, Elizabeth
(2000) Domestic Sources of International Environmental Policy. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
20.
Dessler, David
(1989) `What's at Stake in the Agent-Structure Debate', International Organization43(3): 441-473.
21.
Dubow, Saul
(1995) Scientific Racism in Modern South Africa. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
22.
Gerhart, Gail M.
(1978) Black Power in South Africa: The Evolution of an Ideology. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press.
23.
Gould, Stephen J.
(1981) The Mismeasure of Man. New York: Norton.
24.
Haas, Peter M.
(1990) Saving the Mediterranean. New York: Columbia University Press.
25.
Haas, Peter M. (ed.) (1992) `Knowledge, Power, and International Policy Coordination', special issue of International Organization46(1).
26.
Haas, Peter M.
, Robert O. Keohane and Marc Levy (eds) (1993) Institutions for the Earth: Sources of Effective International Environmental Protection. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
27.
Hollis, Martin
and Steve Smith (1990) Explaining and Understanding International Relations. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
28.
Imig, Doug
and Sidney Tarrow (1999) `The Europeanization of Movements? A New Approach to Transnational Contention', in Donatella della Porta, Hanspeter Kriesi, and Dieter Rucht (eds) Social Movements in a Globalizing World, pp. 112-133. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
29.
Israel, Mark
(1999) South African Political Exile in the United Kingdom. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
30.
Katzenstein, Mary Fainsod
(1998) Faithful and Fearless: Moving Feminist Protest inside the Church and Military. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
31.
Kaufman, Chaim D.
and Robert A. Pape (1999) `Explaining Costly International Moral Action: Britain's Sixty-year Campaign Against the Atlantic Slave Trade', International Organization53(4): 631-668.
32.
Keck, Margaret E.
and Kathryn Sikkink (1998a) Activists beyond Borders: Transnational Advocacy Networks in International Politics. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
33.
Keck, Margaret E.
and Kathryn Sikkink (1998b) `Transnational Advocacy Networks in the Movement Society', in David S. Meyer and Sidney Tarrow (eds) The Social Movement Society: Contentious Politics for a New Century, pp. 217-238. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
34.
Klotz, Audie
(1995) Norms in International Relations: The Struggle against Apartheid. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
35.
Klotz, Audie
(1999a) `Diplomatic Isolation', in Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz (eds) How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa, pp. 195-212. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
36.
Klotz, Audie
(1999b) `Making Sanctions Work: Comparative Lessons', in Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz (eds) How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa, pp. 264-282. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
37.
Knopf, Jeffrey W.
(1998) Domestic Society and International Cooperation: The Impact of Protest on US Arms Control Policy. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.
38.
Kolchin, Peter
(1993) American Slavery 1619-1877. New York: Hill and Wang.
39.
Layton, Azza Salama
(2000) International Politics and Civil Rights Policies in the United States, 1941-1960. New York: Cambridge University Press.
40.
Litfin, Karen
(1994) Ozone Discourses: Science and Politics in Global Environmental Cooperation. New York: Columbia University Press.
41.
Lodge, Tom
(1987) `State of Exile: The African National Congress of South Africa, 1976-86', Third World Quarterly9(1): 1-27.
42.
Lynch, Cecelia
(1997) ` “Mind the Gap”: Bridging Approaches to Social Movements and International Relations', paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Political Science Association.
McAdam, Doug
(1998) `On the International Origins of Domestic Political Opportunities', in Anne N. Costain and Andrew S. McFarland (eds) Social Movements and American Political Institutions, pp. 251-267. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.
45.
McAdam, Doug
, John D. McCarthy and Mayer N. Zald (eds) (1996) Comparative Perspectives on Social Movements: Political Opportunities, Mobilizing Structures, and Cultural Framings. New York: Cambridge University Press.
46.
McFeely, William S.
(1991) Frederick Douglass. New York: W.W. Norton.
47.
Magnusson, Warren
(1994) `Social Movements and the Global City', Millennium23(3): 621-645.
48.
Mangaliso, Mzamo P.
(1999) `Disinvestment by Multinational Corporations', in Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz (eds) How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa, pp. 145-158. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
49.
Mangaliso, Nomazengele A.
(1999) `Cultural Boycotts and Political Change', in Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz (eds) How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa, pp. 232-243. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
50.
Midgley, Clare
(1992) Women Against Slavery: The British Campaign 1780-1870. London: Routledge.
51.
Millennium (1994) Special issue on social movements, 23(3).
52.
Nadelmann, Ethan A.
(1990) `Global Prohibition Regimes: The Evolution of Norms in International Society', International Organization44(4): 479-526.
53.
Polanyi, Karl
(1944) The Great Tranformation. Boston: Beacon.
54.
Quarles, Benjamin
(1969) Black Abolitionists. New York: Oxford University Press/Da Capo Press.
55.
Risse-Kappen, Thomas
(ed.) (1995) Bringing Transnationalism Back In: Non-State Actors, Domestic Structures, and International Institutions. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
56.
Risse, Thomas
, Stephen C. Ropp and Kathryn Sikkink (eds) (1999) The Power of Human Rights: International Norms and Domestic Change. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
57.
Rochon, Thomas R.
(1998) Culture Moves: Ideas, Activism, and Changing Values. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
58.
Rucht, Dieter
(1999) `The Transnationalization of Social Movements: Trends, Causes, Problems', in Donatella della Porta, Hanspeter Kriesi and Dieter Rucht (eds.) Social Movements in a Globalizing World, pp. 206-222. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
59.
Sassen, Saskia
(1991) The Global City: New York, London, Tokyo. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
60.
Schmitz, Hans Peter
(forthcoming) `When Networks Blind: Human Rights and Politics in Kenya', in Thomas Callaghy, Ronald Kassimir and Robert Latham (eds) Intervention and Transnationalism in Africa: Global-Local Networks of Power. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
61.
Smith, Jackie
, Charles Chatfield and Ron Pagnucco (eds) (1997) Transnational Social Movements and Global Politics: Solidarity beyond the State. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press.
62.
Stewart, James Brewer
(1996) Holy Warriors: The Abolitionists and American Slavery. New York: Hill and Wang.
63.
Stiles, Kendall
(ed.) (2000) Global Institutions and Local Empowerment: Competing Theoretical Perspectives. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
64.
Stultz, Newell
(1991) `The Evolution of the United Nations Anti-Apartheid Regime', Human Rights Quarterly13(1): 1-23.
65.
Tarrow, Sidney
(1998) Power in Movement: Social Movements and Contentious Politics, 2nd edn.New York: Cambridge University Press.
66.
Tarrow, Sidney
(2001) `Transnational Politics: Contention and Institutions in International Politics', Annual Review of Political Science4: 1-20.
67.
Taylor, Clare
(1995) Women of the Anti-Slavery Movement: The Weston Sisters. New York: St Martin's Press.
68.
Thomas, Daniel
(2001) The Helsinki Effect: International Norms, Human Rights, and the Demise of Communism. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.
69.
Thomas, Scott
(1996) The Diplomacy of Liberation: The Foreign Relations of the ANC since 1960. London: I.B. Taurus.
70.
United Nations Department of Public Information
(1994) The United Nations and Apartheid 1948-1994. New York: United Nations.
71.
Voorhes, Meg
(1999) `The US Divestment Movement', in Neta C. Crawford and Audie Klotz (eds) How Sanctions Work: Lessons from South Africa, pp. 129-144. Basingstoke: Macmillan.
Wapner, Paul
(1995) `Politics beyond the State: Environmental Activism and World Civic Politics', World Politics47(3): 311-340.
74.
Wapner, Paul
(1996) Environmental Activism and World Civic Politics. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
75.
Ware, Vron
(1992) Beyond the Pale: White Women, Racism and History. London: Verso.
76.
Weiss, Thomas G.
and Leon Gordenker (eds) (1996) NGOs, the UN and Global Governance. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
77.
Wendt, Alexander
(1987) `The Agent-Structure Problem in International Relations Theory', International Organization41(3): 335-370.
78.
Wendt, Alexander
(1992) `Anarchy Is What States Make of It: The Social Construction of Power Politics', International Organization46(2): 391-425.
79.
Willetts, Peter
(ed.) (1996) The Conscience of the World: The Influence of Non-Governmental Organizations in the UN System. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution.
80.
Wilmer, Franke
(1993) The Indigenous Voice in World Politics. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
