The dominant, positivist, approach to the study of culture and national security specifies `culture' as an independent variable. It assumes that culture, and the study of culture, are uncontaminated by the politics of national security. This formulation contrasts with the dominant understanding of `culture' in the humanities, where culture and power are viewed as constituting a `nexus', and where politics is claimed to shape cultural knowledge, including knowledge about culture, as much as the other way around. I demonstrate the utility of the `nexus' approach by exploring the origins of Gabriel Almond's `political culture' research. I show that Almond built on ideas that originated in national security work, that he enjoyed an intimate relationship with national security agencies, that his scholarship tracked US foreign policy concerns, and that it was part of a broader Cold War cultural formation. `Political culture', thus, was not pure of the politics of national security. I conclude by raising some questions about the `purity' of the present literature on culture and national security.
Almond, Gabriel
(1948) `The Christian Parties of Western Europe', World Politics1(1): 30-58.
2.
Almond, Gabriel
(ed.) (1949) The Struggle for Democracy in Germany. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press.
3.
Almond, Gabriel
(1950) The American People and their Foreign Policy. New York: Harcourt, Brace.
4.
Almond, Gabriel
(1954) The Appeals of Communism. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
5.
Almond, Gabriel
(1990) A Discipline Divided: Schools and Sects in Political Science. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
6.
Almond, Gabriel
(1998) Plutocracy and Politics in New York City. Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
7.
Almond, Gabriel
(undated) `The Civic Culture: Prehistory, Retrospect, and Prospect', mimeo, Center for the Study of Democracy, University of California, Irvine.
8.
Almond, Gabriel
with Harold D. Lasswell (1934) `Aggressive Behavior by Clients on Public Relief', American Political Science Review28(4): 643-655.
9.
Almond, Gabriel
and Sidney Verba (1963) The Civic Culture: Political Attitudes and Democracy in Five Nations. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
10.
Almond, Gabriel
and Sidney Verba (eds) (1980) The Civic Culture Revisited. Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
11.
Barnett, Michael
(1996) `Identity and Alliances in the Middle East', in Peter Katzenstein (ed.) The Culture of National Security, pp. 400-447. New York: Columbia University Press.
12.
Barrett, David M.
(ed.) (1997) Lyndon B. Johnson's Vietnam Papers: A Documentary Collection. College Station, TX: Texas A&M University Press.
13.
Benedict, Ruth
(1946) The Chrysanthemum and the Sword. New York: Houghton Mifflin.
14.
Berger, Thomas U.
(1996) `Norms, Identity and National Security in Germany and Japan', in Peter Katzenstein (ed.) The Culture of National Security, pp. 317-356. New York: Columbia University Press.
15.
Blakey, George T.
(1970) Historians on the Homefront: American Propagandists for the Great War. Lexington: University Press of Kentucky.
16.
Campbell, David
(1992) Writing Security: United States Foreign Policy and the Politics of Identity. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
17.
Coleman, Peter
(1989) The Liberal Conspiracy: The Congress for Cultural Freedom and the Struggle for the Mind of Postwar Europe. New York: Free Press.
18.
Contemporary Authors (1999) at www.galenet.com.
19.
Converse, Jean M.
(1987) Survey Research in the United States: Roots and Emergence, 1890-1960. Berkeley: University of California Press.
20.
Cumings, Bruce
(1998) `Boundary Displacement: Area Studies and International Studies During and After the Cold War', in Christopher Simpson (ed.) Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences During the Cold War, pp. 159-188. New York: New Press.
21.
Deutsch, Karl W.
(1989) `A Path among the Social Sciences', in Joseph Kruzel and James Rosenau (eds.) Journeys through World Politics: Autobiographical Reflections of Thirty-Four Academic Travelers, pp. 15-26. Lexinton, MA: Lexington Books.
22.
Diamond, Sigmund
(1992) Compromised Campus: The Collaboration of Universities with the Intelligence Community, 1945-1955. New York: Oxford University Press.
23.
Doty, Roxanne
(1996) Imperial Encounters: The Politics of Representation in North-South Relations. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
24.
Dower, John W.
(1986) War Without Mercy: Race and Power in the Pacific War. New York: Pantheon Books.
25.
Eyre, Dana P.
and Mark C. Suchman (1996) `Status, Norms, and the Proliferation of Conventional Weapons: An Institutional Theory Approach', in Peter Katzenstein (ed.) The Culture of National Security, pp. 79-113. New York: Columbia University Press.
26.
Farr, James
(1998) `The New Science of Politics: Democracy, Propaganda and Civic Training', mimeo, University of Minnesota.
27.
Finnemore, Martha
(1996a) `Constructing Norms of Humanitarian Intervention', in Peter Katzenstein (ed.) The Culture of National Security, pp. 153-185. New York: Columbia University Press.
28.
Finnemore, Martha
(1996b) National Interests in International Society. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
29.
Foucault, Michel
(1972) The Archeology of Knowledge. New York: Pantheon Books.
30.
Foucault, Michel
(1977) Discipline and Punish: The Birth of The Prison. New York: Pantheon Books.
31.
Gary, Brett
(1999) The Nervous Liberals: Propaganda Anxieties from World War I to the Cold War. New York: Columbia University Press.
32.
Gendzier, Irene L.
(1985) Managing Political Change: Social Scientists and the Third World. Boulder: Westview Press.
33.
Gendzier, Irene
(1998) `Play it Again, Sam: The Practice and Apology of Development', in Christopher Simpson (ed.) Universities and Empire: Money and Politics in the Social Sciences During the Cold War, pp. 57-96. New York: The New Press.
34.
Halberstam, David
(1972) The Best and the Brightest. New York: Random House.
35.
Harper, Samuel
(1929) Civic Training in Soviet Russia. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
36.
Herman, Ellen
(1995) `The Career of Cold War Psychology', Radical History Review No. 63(Fall): 52-85.
37.
Horwitz, Robert
(1962) `Scientific Propaganda: Harold Lasswell', in Herbert J. Storing (ed.) Essays on the Scientific Study of Politics, pp. 227-304. New York: Holt, Rinehart.
38.
Huntington, Samuel P.
(1961) Instability at the Non-Strategic Level of Conflict. Washington: Institute for Defense Analysis.
39.
Huntington, Samuel P.
(1996) The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. New York: Touchstone.
40.
Jepperson, Ronald
, Alexander Wendt and Peter Katzenstein (1996) `Norms, Identity, and Culture in National Security', in Peter Katzenstein (ed.) The Culture of National Security, pp. 33-75. New York: Columbia University Press.
41.
Karl, Barry
(1972) Charles Merriam and the Study of Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
42.
Katzenstein, Peter
(ed.) (1996) The Culture of National Security: Norms and Identity in World Politics. New York: Columbia University Press.
43.
Kier, Elizabeth
(1997) Imagining War: French and British Military Doctrine Between the Wars. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
44.
Keith, Kenton
(1999) `Troubled Takeover: The Demise of USIA', Foreign Service Journal76(9): 18-23.
45.
Kennedy, David M.
(1980) Over Here: The First World War and American Society. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
46.
Kratchowil, Friedrich
(1996) `Is the Ship of Culture at Sea or Returning?' in Yosef Lapid and Friedrich Kratchowil (eds) The Return of Culture and Identity in IR Theory, pp. 201-222. Boulder, Co: Lynne Reinner.
47.
Laitin, David
(1995) `The Civic Culture at 30', American Political Science Review89(1): 168-173.
48.
Lapid, Yosef
(1996) `Culture's Ship: Returns and Departures in International Relations Theory', in Yosef Lapid and Friedrich Kratochwil (eds) The Return of Culture and Identity in IR Theory, pp. 3-20. Boulder, CO: Lynne Rienner.
49.
Lasswell, Harold D.
(1927) Propaganda Techniques in the World War. New York: A. Knopf.
50.
Lasswell, Harold D.
(1928) `The Function of the Propagandist', International Journal of Ethics38: 258-268.
51.
Lasswell, Harold D.
(1930) Psychopathology and Politics. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
52.
Lasswell, Harold D.
(1935) World Politics and Personal Insecurity. New York: Whittlesey House.
53.
Lasswell, Harold D.
, Daniel Lerner and Hans Speier (eds) (1979) Propaganda and Communication in World History. Honolulu: University Press of Hawaii.
54.
Legro, Jeffrey
(1995) Cooperation Under Fire: Anglo-German Restraint During World War II. Ithaca: Cornell University Press.
55.
Long, David
and Brian Schmidt (2000) `Imperialism and Internationalism in the Discipline of International Relations', mimeo, University of Wales, Aberystwyth.
56.
Lucas, Scott
(1996) `Campaigns of Truth: The Psychological Strategy Board and American Ideology, 1951-1953', The International History Review18(2): 253-304.
57.
Lucas, Scott
(1999) Freedom's War: America's Crusade against the Soviet Union. New York: New York University Press.
58.
Marchetti, Victor
and John Marks (1974) The CIA and the Cult of Intelligence. New York: Knopf.
59.
Merriam, Charles
(1919) `American Publicity in Italy', American Political Science Review13(4): 541-555.
60.
Merriam, Charles
(1931) The Making of Citizens: A Comparative Study of Methods of Civic Training. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
61.
Needell, Allan
(1993) ` “Truth is Our Weapon”: Project TROY, Political Warfare, and Government-Academic Relations in the National Security State', Diplomatic History17(3): 399-420.
62.
Nelkin, Dorothy
(1972) The University and Military Research: Moral Politics at MIT. Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
63.
Oppenheimer, Martin
(1997) `Footnote to the Cold War: The Harvard Russian Research Center', Monthly Review48(11): 7-11.
64.
Oren, Ido
(1995) `The Subjectivity of the “Democratic” Peace: Changing US Perceptions of Imperial Germany', International Security20(2): 147-184.
65.
Oren, Ido
(2000) `Uncritical Portrayals of Fascist Italy and of Iberic-Latin Dictatorships in American Political Science', Comparative Studies in Society and History42(1): 87-117.
66.
Pateman, Carole
(1971) `Political Culture, Political Structure and Political Change', British Journal of Political Science1(3): 291-305.
67.
Pye, Lucian
(1956) Guerrilla Communism in Malaya. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
68.
Pye, Lucian
(1969) Observations on the Chieu Hoi Program; Memorandum Prepared for the Office of the Assistant Secretary of Defense/International Security Affairs and the Advanced Research Projects Agency. Santa Monica, CA: Rand Corporation.
69.
Ranelagh, John
(1986) The Agency: The Rise and Decline of the CIA. New York: Simon and Schuster.
70.
Risse-Kappen, Thomas
(1996) `Collective Identity in a Democratic Community: The Case of NATO', in Peter Katzenstein (ed.) The Culture of National Security, pp. 357-399. New York: Columbia University Press.
71.
Ross, Dorothy
(1991) The Origins of American Social Science. New York: Cambridge University Press.
72.
Russett, Bruce
(1993) Grasping the Democratic Peace: Principles for a Post-Cold War World. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
73.
Said, Edward
(1978) Orientalism. New York: Vintage Books.
74.
Said, Edward
(1993) Culture and Imperialism. New York: Vintage Books.
75.
Saunders, Frances Stonor
(1999) The Cultural Cold War: The CIA and the World of Arts and Letters. New York: The New Press.
76.
Schmidt, Brian
(1998) The Political Discourse of Anarchy: A Disciplinary History of International Relations. Albany, NY: SUNY Press.
77.
Schneider, Herbert
and Shepard Clough (1929) Making Fascists. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
78.
Shafer, D. Michael
(1988) Deadly Paradigms: The Failure of US Counterinsurgency Policy. Princeton: Princeton University Press.
79.
Simpson, Christopher
(1993) `US Mass Communication Research, Counter-insurgency and Scientific “Reality” ', in William S. Solomon and Richard McChesney (eds) Ruthless Criticism: New Perspectives in US Communication History, pp. 313-348. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
80.
Simpson, Christopher
(1994) Science of Coercion: Communication Research and Psychological Warfare, 1945-1960. New York: Oxford University Press.
81.
Smith, Marc C.
(2000) `Lasswell, Harold Dwight', Fehler! Textmarke nicht definiert. American National Biography Online. Accessed on 30 May 2000.
82.
Sproule, J. Michael
(1997) Propaganda and Democracy: The American Experience of Media and Mass Persuasion. New York: Cambridge University Press.
83.
The Complete Marquis Who's Who, 1999 (1999), at www.galenet.com.
84.
Weldes, Jutta
, Mark Laffey, Huge Gusterson and Raymond Duvall (eds) (1999) Cultures of Insecurity: States, Communities, and the Production of Danger. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press.
85.
Whittaker, James
(1997) `Psychological Warfare in Vietnam', Political Psychology18(1): 165-179.
86.
Winks, Robin
(1996) Cloak and Gown: Scholars in the Secret War, 1939-1961, 2nd edn.New Haven: Yale University Press.
