Failures on visuoperceptual neuropsychological tasks (on neuropsychological tests of visuo-spatial perception or on tests concerning semantic properties of visual objects), may indicate focal deficits of visuoperceptual function, or could be the result of (an)other (peripheral) visual deficit(s), or be the effect of a more general cognitive decline. In multiple sclerosis (MS) patients exhibiting sufficient visual acuity and not showing severe cognitive deterioration, impairment on a comprehensive set of 31 visuoperceptual neuropsychological tasks was compared with spatial resolution deficits (SRD), temporal resolution deficits (TRD) for visual stimuli, abnormal pattern shift visual evoked potential (PSVEP) responses, and failing scores on neuropsychological tasks other than visuoperceptual tasks. Impairment on the visuoperceptual neuropsychological tasks was highly independent from the other abnormal visual and cognitive neurological impairments examined, suggesting that it mostly represented focal deficits. Only TRD in both eyes related to this impairment and this relationship was rather weak. Thus in some MS patients a slowed visual information processing may be one of the combined deficits underlying visuoperceptual neuropsychological task impairment. Given that SRD and TRD were not related to another stage of MS and reflect disturbances of a P (parvocellular channel and ventral stream projections) and M (magnocellular channel and dorsal stream projections) visual-system function respectively, demyelination of a certain M pathway may become a co-determinant of visuoperceptual neuropsychological task impairment more rapidly than damage to a certain P pathway.
Rao SM , Leo GJ , Bernardin L , Unversagt F. (1991) Cognitive dysfunction in multiple sclerosis. I. Frequency, patterns and prediction . Neurology41: 685-691 .
2.
Benton A , Tranel D. (1993) Visuoperceptual, visuospatial and visuoconstructive disorders. In: Heilman KM , Valenstein E. (eds) Clinical neuropsychology. New York: Oxford University Press, Oxford , pp 165-213.
3.
Capruso DX , Hamsher Kde S , Benton AL. (1995) Assessment of visuocognitive processes. In: Mapou RL , Spector J. (eds). Clinical neuropsychological assessment: a cognitive approach. New York: Plenum Press , pp 137-183.
4.
Lezak MD. (1983) Neuropsychological assessment: second edition.New York: Oxford University Press, Oxford .
5.
Vleugels Let al. (2000) Visuoperceptual impairment in multiple sclerosis patients diagnosed with neuropsycho-logical tasks . Multiple Sclerosis6: 241-254 .
6.
McCarthy RA , Warrington EK. (1990). Cognitive neuropsychology. A clinical introduction. San Diego, CA, USA: Academic Press Inc.
7.
Gilandas A , Touyz S , Beumont PJV. (1984). Handbook of Neuropsychological assessment. New York: Grune and Stratton , p 34-34.
8.
Galvin RJ , Heron JR , Regan, D. (1977) Subclinical optic neuropathy in multiple sclerosis . Arch Neurol34: 666-670 .
9.
Regan D , Silver R , Murray TJ. (1977) Visual acuity and contrast sensitivity in multiple sclerosis-hidden visual loss . Brain100: 563-579 .
10.
Patterson VH , Foster DH , Heron JR. (1980) Variability of visual threshold in multiple sclerosis . Brain103: 139-147 .
11.
Regan D. (1984). Visual psychophysical tests in the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. In: Poser CM (ed.). The diagnosis of multiple sclerosis. New York: Thieme-Stratton Inc. , pp 64-75.
12.
Snelgar RS , Foster DH , Heron JR , Jones RE , Mason RJ. (1985) Multiple sclerosis: abnormalities in luminance, chromatic, and temporal function at multiple retinal sites . Doc Ophtalmol60: 79-92 .
13.
Ashworth B , Aspinall PA , Mitchell JD. (1990) Visual function in multiple sclerosis . Doc Ophtalmol73: 209-224 .
14.
Herbst H , Ketabi P , Their P , Dichgans J. (1997) Comparison of psychophysical and evoked potential methods in the detection of visual deficits in multiple sclerosis . Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol104: 82-90 .
15.
Honan WPet al. (1990) Visual loss in multiple sclerosis and its relation to previous optic neuritis, disease duration and clinical classification . Brain113: 975-987 .
16.
Ruessmann K , Beneicke U. (1993) P100 latency of the visual evoked response in multiple sclerosis compared with normative data . Int J Neurosci73: 203-206 .
17.
Fischer JSet al. (1994) What do we really know about cognitive dysfunction, affective disorders, and stress in multiple sclerosis? A practitioner's guide . J Neuro Rehab8: 151-164 .
18.
Kubova Z , Kuba M. (1995) Motion onset VEPs improve the diagnostic of multiple sclerosis and optic neuritis . Sb Ved Pr Lek Fak Karlovy Univerzity Hradci Kralove (suppl.) 38: 89-93 (abstract). Cit. in: Comprehensive Medline (1996).
19.
Rao SM. (1995) Neuropsychology of multiple sclerosis . Curr Opin Neurol8: 16-22 .
20.
Vleugels Let al. (1998) Temporal and spatial resolution in foveal vision of multiple sclerosis patients . Vision Res38: 2987-2997 .
21.
Vleugels Let al. (1999) Temporal resolution deficits in the visual fields of MS patients . Vision Res39: 2428-2438 .
22.
Knudsen Let al. (1989) The impact of `primary' visual effects on neuropsychological performance in multiple sclerosis. In: Jensen K , Knudsen L , Stenager E , Grant I (eds). Mental disorders and cognitive deficits in multiple sclerosis. London: Libbey , pp 99-104.
23.
Lezak MD. (1995) Neuropsychological assessment: third edition. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press .
24.
Milner AD , Goodale MA. (1995) The Visual Brain in Action. Oxford, New York, Tokyo: Oxford University Press , p 39-39.
25.
Mohler CW , Wurtz RH. (1977) Role of the striate cortex and superior colliculus in visual guidance of saccadic eye movements in monkeys . JNeurophysiol40: 74-94 .
26.
Schiller PH , Maunsell JHR , Malpeli JG. (1985) The effect of lateral geniculate lesions on the detection of visual stimuli . Invest Ophtalmol Vis Sci (suppl.) 26: 195-195 .
27.
Merigan WH , Eskin TA. (1986) Spatiotemporal vision of macaques with severe loss of Pb retinal ganglion cells . Vision Res26: 1751-1761 .
28.
Schiller PH , Logothetis NK , Charles ER. (1990) Role of the colour-opponent and broad-band channels in vision . Vis Neurosci5: 321-346 .
29.
Merigan WH , Maunsell JHR. (1990) Macaque vision after magnocellular lateral geniculate lesions . Vis Neurosci5: 347-352 .
30.
Schiller PH. (1993) The effects of V4 and middle temporal (MT) area lesions on visual performance in the rhesus monkey . Vis Neurosci10: 717-746 .
31.
Galvin RJ , Regan D , Heron JR. (1976) Impaired temporal resolution of vision after acute retrobulbar neuritis . Brain99: 255-268 .
32.
Litvan Iet al. (1988a) Slowed information processing in multiple sclerosis . Arch Neurol45: 281-285 .
33.
Litvan Iet al. (1988b) Multiple memory deficits in patients with multiple sclerosis: exploring the working memory system . Arch Neurol45: 607-610 .
34.
Rao SMet al. (1993) Memory dysfunction in multiple sclerosis: its relation to working memory, semantic encoding, and implicit learning . Neuropsychology7: 364-374 .
35.
Kujala P , Portin R , Revonsuo A , Ruutiainen J. (1994) Automated and controlled information processing in multiple sclerosis . Brain117: 1115-1126 .
36.
Poser CMet al. (1983) New diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: guidelines for research protocols . Ann Neurol13: 227-231 .
37.
Folstein MF , Folstein SE , McHugh PR. (1975) Mini Mental State . J Psychiatr Res12: 189-198
38.
Farnsworth D. (1957) The Farnsworth-Munsell 100-Hue test manual (revised ed.). Munsell Color Company: Baltimore .
39.
Kurtzke JF. (1961) On the evaluation of disability in multiple sclerosis . Neurology11: 686-694
40.
Kurtzke JF. (1983) Rating neurologic impairment in multiple sclerosis: an expanded disability status scale (EDSS) . Neurology33: 1444-1452 .
41.
Harrison AC , Becker WJ , Stell WK. (1987) Colour vision abnormalities in multiple sclerosis . Can J Neurol Sci14: 279-285 .
42.
Gonsette REet al. (1994) The natural history of MS in Belgium: a MS clinic based study. In: Firnhaber W , Lauer K. (eds). MS in Europe. Epidemiological Update. Darmstadt: Leuchtturm Verlag/LTV Press , pp 122-129.
43.
Halliday AM , McDonald WI , Mushin, J. (1973) Visual evoked potentials in the diagnosis of multiple sclerosis . Br Med J4: 661-664 .
44.
Frisén L. (1990) Clinical tests of vision. New York: Raven Press .
45.
Regan D , Milner BA , Heron JR. (1976) Delayed visual perception and delayed visual evoked potentials in the spinal form of multiple sclerosis and in retrobulbar neuritis . Brain99: 43-66 .
46.
Patterson VH , Foster DH , Heron JR , Mason RJ. (1981) Multiple sclerosis. Luminance threshold and measurements of temporal characteristics of vision . Arch Neurol38: 687-689 .
47.
Benton AL , Hamsher Kde S. (1976) Multilingual Aphasia Examination. Iowa City, IA: University of Iowa .
48.
Gronwall DMA. (1977) Paced auditory serial-addition task: a measure of recovery from concussion . Percept Mot Skills44: 367-373 .
49.
Barbizet J , Cany E. (1968) Clinical and psychometrical study of a patient with memory disturbances . Int J Neurol7: 44-54 .
50.
Buschke H , Fuld PA. (1974) Evaluating storage, retention, and retrieval in disordered memory and learning . Neurology24: 1019-1025 .
Kaplan EF , Goodglass H , Weintraub S. (1983) The Boston Naming Test (2nd edn.). Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger .
53.
Bruininks RH. (1978) The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency. Examiner's Manual. Circle Pines, Minn.: AGF .
54.
Warrington EK , James M. (1991) The Visual Object and Space PerceptionBattery Bury St Edmunds: Thames Valley Test Company .
55.
Warrington EK. (1985) Agnosia: the impairment of object recognition. In: Frederiks JAM. (Ed.). Handbook of clinical neurology, vol. 1 (45): clinical neuropsychology. Amsterdam: Elsevier , pp 333-349.
56.
Benton ALet al. (1983) Contributions to neuropsychological assessment: a clinical manual. New York, Oxford: Oxford University Press .
57.
Hooper HL. (1958) The Hooper Visual Organization Test manual. Los Angeles: Western Psychological Services .
58.
Schenkenberg T. (1980) The Line Bisection Test. Utah: Psychological Service Veterans Administration Medical Centre .
59.
Thurstone LL. (1944) A factorial study of perception. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press .
60.
Money J. (1976) A Standardized Road Map Test of Direction Sense. Manual. Can Rafael, CA: Academic Therapy Publications .
61.
Institute for Perception TNO. (1972) TNO Test for Stereoscopic Vision: eighth edition.Utrecht, The Netherlands: Laméris .
62.
Chiappa KH. (ed.). (1989) Evoked Potentials in Clinical Medicine. New York: Raven Press . p 58-58.
63.
Stenager E , Knudsen L , Jensen K. (1994) Multiple sclerosis: methodological aspects of cognitive testing . Acta Neurol Belg94: 53-56 .
64.
Kirk RE. (1968) Experimental design: procedures for the behavioral sciences. Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole Publishing Company Inc.
65.
Lee BB. (1996) Minireview. Receptive field structure in the primate retina . Vis Res36: 631-644 .
66.
Lennie P. (1993) Roles of P and M pathways. In: Shapley R , Man-Kit Lam D , (eds). Contrast sensitivity. Proceedings of the Retina Foundation Symposia. London:MIT Press , pp 201-213.
67.
Weinstein GW , Odom JV , Cavender S. (1991) Visually evoked potentials and electroretinography in neurologic evaluation . Neurologic Clinics9: 225-242 .
68.
Andersson T , Sidén A. (1994) Comparison of visual evoked potentials elicited by light-emitting diodes and TV monitor stimulation in patients with multiple sclerosis and potentially related conditions . Electroencephalography Clin Neurophysiol92: 473-479 .
Henkes HE , van Balen ATM , Stilma JS. (1986) Oogheelkunde, derde druk. Amsterdam, Brussels: Elsevier .
71.
Goldmann H. (1945) Grundlagen exakter Perimetrie . Optamalmologica109: 59-70 .
72.
Zihl J , Wohlfahrt-Englert A. (1986) The influence of visual field disorders on visual identification tasks . Eur Arch Psychiatry Neurol Sci236: 61-64 .
