Aerostatic bearings technology has been increasingly applied in the precision engineering and high-tech industries over the last decades, due to their considerable advantages including high motion accuracy, high speeds, low friction, and environment-friendly operations. This article presents a comprehensive and critical review with the historical progress on the state-of-the-art in research and development of design and analysis methods for aerostatic bearings and the associated products. The article also attempts to identify and discuss the scientific and technological challenges in air-bearing design and development, their future research development and trends, and their potential applications.
GaoQChenWLuL, et al.Aerostatic bearings design and analysis with the application to precision engineering: state-of-the-art and future perspectives. Tribol Int2019; 135: 1–17.
6.
PowellJW. A review of progress in gas lubrication. Rev Phys Technol1970; 1: 96.
7.
WillisR. On the Pressure Produced on a Flat Plate When Opposed to a Stream of Air Issuing From an Orifice in a Plan Surface. China: J. Smith, 1828.
8.
KingsburyA. Experiments with an air-lubricated journal. J Am Soc Naval Eng1897; 9: 267–292.
9.
LuS. Numerical Simulation of Slider Air Bearings. Berkeley: University of California, 1997.
10.
SugimoriSKawagutiMYamamotoSS. Characteristics of air bearings with small inlet holes for a precision coordinate measuring device. Jpn J Appl Phys1975; 14: 280.
11.
BalandinFI, Foreign technology Div Wright-Patterson AFB Ohio. Study of an annular air bearing with external pressurization. US Air Force, Systems Command, Foreign Technology Division; 1972 Apr 11.
12.
YuHCMaWQWangZW, et al.CFD research on aerostatic bearing with tangential supply holes. Adv Mater Res. 2010, 97: 2021–2026.
13.
YuHMaW. Study on two different calculation methods for thrust aerostatic bearings with single supply hole at large gas film clearance. 2010 IEEE International Conference on Mechatronics and Automation. IEEE, 2010: 53–58.
14.
GaoQQiLGaoS, et al.A FEM based modeling method for analyzing the static performance of aerostatic thrust bearings considering the fluid-structure interaction. Tribol Int2021; 156: 106849.
15.
MiyatakeMYoshimotoS. Numerical investigation of static and dynamic characteristics of aerostatic thrust bearings with small feed holes. Tribol Int2010; 43: 1353–1359.
16.
BelforteGRaparelliTTrivellaA, et al.CFD Analysis of a simple orifice-type feeding system for aerostatic bearings. Tribol Lett2015; 58: 1–8.
17.
ShuPCXiaoSHWuH. Finite element analysis and calculation of load capacity on aerostatic thrust bearing. In: Gao Q, Qi L, Gao S, Lu L, Song L, Zhang F (eds) Advanced Materials Research. Vol. 188. China: Trans Tech Publications Ltd, 2011, pp. 106849.
18.
LuoXHanBChenX, et al.Multi-physics modelling of tunable aerostatic bearing with air gap shape compensation. Tribol Int2021; 153: 106587.
19.
GouNChengKHuoD. Multiscale modelling and analysis for design and development of a high-precision aerostatic bearing slideway and its digital twin. Machines2021; 9: 85.
20.
HarrisonWJ. The hydrodynamical theory of lubrication with special reference to air as lubricant. Trans Cambridge Philos Soc1913; 188: 39–54.
21.
RoS-KKimSKwakY,et al.A linear air bearing stage with active magnetic preloads for ultraprecise straight motion. Prec Eng2010; 34: 186–194.
22.
StanevPTWardleFCorbettJ. Investigation of grooved hybrid air bearing performance. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part K: J Multibody Dyn2004; 218: 95–106.
23.
YoshimotoSYamamotoMTodaK. Numerical calculations of pressure distribution in the bearing clearance of circular aerostatic thrust bearings with a single air supply inlet. 2007: 384–390.
24.
Ro SK, Kim S, Kwak Y, Park CH. A linear air bearing stage with active magnetic preloads for ultraprecise straight motion. Precis Eng2010; 34(1): 186–194.
25.
ZhangQShanXCGuoG,et al.Performance analysis of air bearing in a micro system. Mater Sci Eng A2006; 423: 225–229.
26.
CharkiADiopKChampmartinS,et al.Numerical simulation and experimental study of thrust air bearings with multiple orifices. Int J Mech Sci2013; 72: 28–38.
27.
StoutKJSweeneyF. Design of aerostatic flat pad bearings using pocketed orifice restrictors. Tribol Int1984; 17: 191–198.
28.
StoutKJEl-AshkarSGhasiV,et al.Theoretical analysis of two configurations of aerostatic flat pad bearings using pocketed orifice restrictors.Tribol Int1993; 26: 265–273.
29.
McKeownPACarlisleKShoreP,et al.Ultraprecision, high stiffness CNC grinding machines for ductile mode grinding of brittle materials. In: Infrared technology and applications. 1320. UK: SPIE, 1990, pp.301–313.
30.
KhimGParkCH. A rotary stage in a vacuum using an air bearing. Vacuum2014; 105: 39–45.
31.
EkinciTOMayerJRRCloutierGM. Investigation of accuracy of aerostatic guideways. Int J Mach Tools Manuf2009; 49: 478–487.
32.
RasnickWH. Air-bearing slides for precision XY turning machines. Union Carbide Corp., Oak Ridge, Tenn. Y-12 Plant, 1972.
33.
BelforteGRaparelliTViktorovV, et al.Discharge coefficients of orifice-type restrictor for aerostatic bearings. Tribol Int2007; 40: 512–521.
34.
RennJCHsiaoCH. Experimental and CFD study on the mass flow-rate characteristic of gas through orifice-type restrictor in aerostatic bearings. Tribol Int2004; 37: 309–315.
35.
LiuT. Aerostatic gas lubrication. Italy: Harbin Institute of Technology Press, 1990.
36.
Reynolds IVO. On the theory of lubrication and its application to Mr. Beauchamp Tower’s experiments, including an experimental determination of the viscosity of olive oil. Philos Trans Royal Soc London1886; 37: 157–234.
37.
CopeWF. The hydrodynamical theory of film lubrication. Proc Royal Soc London. Series A. Math Phys Sci1949; 197: 201–217.
38.
WannierGH. A contribution to the hydrodynamics of lubrication. Q Appl Math1950; 8: 1–32.
39.
HaltonJH. Lubrication of plain bearings, applicability of Reynolds’s hydrodynamic theory. Engineering1958; 186: 59.
40.
ZienkiewiczOC. Temperature distribution within lubricating films between parallel bearing surfaces and its effect on the pressures developed. Proc. Conference on Lubrication and Wear. 1957, 135.
41.
DowsonD. A generalized Reynolds equation for fluid-film lubrication. Int J Mech Sci1962; 4: 159–170.
42.
CastelliVPirvicsJ. Review of numerical methods in gas bearing film analysis. 1968.
43.
GeroLRMcC. EttlesCM. An evaluation of finite difference and finite element methods for the solution of the Reynolds equation. ASLE Trans1986; 29: 166–172.
44.
Castelli V, Pirvics J. Review of numerical methods in gas bearing film analys. J Lubr Technol1968; 90(4): 777–790.
45.
OnoKKogureKMitsuyaY. Dynamic characteristics of air-lubricated slider bearings under submicron spacing conditions. Bull JSME1979; 22: 1672–1677.
46.
KogureKKanekoROhtaniK. A study on characteristics of surface-restriction compensated gas bearing with T-shaped grooves. Bull JSME1982; 25: 2039–2045.
47.
DalAKaraçayT. Effects of angular misalignment on the performance of rotor-bearing systems supported by externally pressurized air bearing. Tribol Int2017; 111: 276–288.
48.
Kogure K, Kaneko R, Ohtani K. A study on characteristics of surface-restriction compensated gas bearing with T-shaped grooves. Bulletin of JSME. 1982; 25(210): 2039–2045.
49.
KleinstreureCHoldemanJT. A triangular finite element mesh generator for fluid dynamic systems of arbitrary geometry. Int J Numer Methods Eng1980; 15: 1325–1334.
50.
WuLBogyDB. Unstructured adaptive triangular mesh generation techniques and finite volume schemes for the air bearing problem in hard disk drives. J Trib.2000; 122: 761–770.
51.
LuS. Numerical simulation of slider air bearings. Ph.D. thesis, University of California, Berkeley, CA. 1997.
52.
SchellbachK. Probleme der Variationsrechnung. J Für Reine Angew Math (Crelles Journal), 1851(41), 293–363.
53.
MitsuyaY. Molecular mean free path effects in gas lubricated slider bearings: an application or the finite element solution. Bull JSME1979; 22: 863–870.
54.
LiSLiuT. Analysis of the dynamics of a aerostatic bearing spindle system in a precision centrifuge. J Mech Eng2005; 41: 28–32.
55.
NevesMTSchwarzVAMenonGJ. Discharge coefficient influence on the performance of aerostatic journal bearings. Tribol Int2010; 43: 746–751.
56.
MilbradtPAbedWA. “Generalized stabilization techniques in computational fluid dynamics.” In ICHE 2008. Proceedings of the 8th International Conference on Hydro-Science and Engineering, September 9–12, 2008, Nagoya, Japan. 2008.
57.
BhavikattiSS. Finite Element Analysis. Brazil: New Age International, 2005.
58.
HuttonDV. Fundamentals of Finite Element Analysis. Germany: The McGraw Hill Companies, 2004.
ZaehMSiedlD. A new method for simulation of machining performance by integrating finite element and multi-body simulation for machine tools. CIRP Ann2007; 56: 383–386.
61.
ZhangMLiuQYuanS. Machine tool spindle unit analysis system based on second development of ANSYS. Machine Tool Hydraulics2008; 2.
62.
YaoYFLiuQWuWJ. Dynamic simulation of a linear motor feed drive system based on rigid-flexible & electrical-mechanical coupling. Zhendong yu Chongji/J Vib Shock2011; 30: 191–196.
63.
YangXAnCWangZ, et al.Research on surface topography in ultra-precision flycutting based on the dynamic performance of machine tool spindle. Int J Adv Manuf Technol2016; 87: 1957–1965.
64.
ZawawiMHSalehaASalwaA, et al.A review: Fundamentals of computational fluid dynamics (CFD). In AIP conference proceedings 2018 Nov 9 (Vol. 2030, No. 1). AIP Publishing.
65.
VioleauDIssaR. Numerical modelling of complex turbulent free-surface flows with the SPH method: an overview. Int J Numer Methods Fluids2007; 53: 277–304.
QiaoJ. Study of gas bearings for precision pendulum milling head based on numerical simulation. France: Harbin Institute of Technology, 2006.
68.
GaoQLuLChenW, et al.Optimal design of an annular thrust air bearing using parametric computational fluid dynamics model and genetic algorithms. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part J: J Eng Tribol2018; 232: 1203–1214.
69.
ChenXChenHZhuJ,et al.Vortex suppression and nano-vibration reduction of aerostatic bearings by arrayed microhole restrictors. J Vib Control2017; 23: 842–852.
70.
ZhuJChenHChenX. Large eddy simulation of vortex shedding and pressure fluctuation in aerostatic bearings. J Fluids Struct2013; 40: 42–51.
71.
ChenXChenHLuoX, et al.Air vortices and nano-vibration of aerostatic bearings. Tribol Lett2011; 42: 179–183.
72.
YeYXChenXDHuYT,et al.Effects of recess shapes on pneumatic hammering in aerostatic bearings. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part J: J Eng Tribol2010; 224: 231–237.
73.
YuPChenXWangX,et al.Frequency-dependent nonlinear dynamic stiffness of aerostatic bearings subjected to external perturbations. Int J Prec Eng Manuf2015; 16: 1771–1777.
74.
YoshimuraTHanafusaTKitagawaT, et al.Clarifications of the mechanism of nano-fluctuation of aerostatic thrust bearing with surface restriction. Tribol Int2012; 48: 29–34.
75.
WeinanE. Principles of Multiscale Modeling. Japan: Cambridge University Press, 2011.
76.
Violeau D, Issa R. Numerical modelling of complex turbulent free-surface flows with the SPH method: an overview. Int J Numer Methods Fluids2007; 53(2): 277–304.
77.
LinWJKhataitJPLinW,et al.Modelling of an orifice-type aerostatic thrust bearing. 2006 9th International Conference on Control, Automation, Robotics and Vision 2006 Dec 5 (pp. 1–6). IEEE.
78.
ZengQHBogyDB. Slider air bearing designs for load/unload applications. IEEE Trans Magn1999; 35: 746–751.
79.
ZhangSBogyDB. A heat transfer model for thermal fluctuations in a thin slider/disk air bearing. Int J Heat Mass Transfer1999; 42: 1791–1800.
80.
RoSKKimSKwakY,et al.A linear air bearing stage with active magnetic preloads for ultraprecise straight motion. Prec Eng2010; 34: 186–194.
81.
KorzhykOKozakADidkovskyiV,et al.Construction the Device of Acoustic Noise Air Bearing. In2020 IEEE 40th International Conference on Electronics and Nanotechnology (ELNANO) 2020 Apr 22 (pp. 683–687). IEEE.
82.
CaoHDörgelohTRiemerO,et al.Adaptive separation of unbalance vibration in air bearing spindles. Procedia CIRP2017; 62: 357–362.
83.
GaoQQiLGaoS, et al.A FEM based modeling method for analyzing the static performance of aerostatic thrust bearings considering the fluid-structure interaction. Tribol Int2021; 156: 106849.
StarkRFresemannCLindowK. Development and operation of digital twins for technical systems and services.CIRP Ann2019; 68: 129–132.
86.
GaoWAraiYShibuyaA, et al.Measurement of multi-degree-of-freedom error motions of a precision linear air-bearing stage. Prec Eng2006; 30: 96–103.
87.
CaoHRiemerOBrinksmeierE. Dynamic modelling and vibration simulation of air bearing spindle systems due to unbalance. Int J Mechatron Manuf Syst2017; 10: 260–276.
88.
AoyamaTKakinumaYKobayashiY. Numerical and experimental analysis for the small vibration of aerostatic guideways. CIRP Ann2006; 55: 419–422.
89.
SunYWuQChenW, et al.Influence of unbalanced electromagnetic force and air supply pressure fluctuation in air bearing spindles on machining surface topography. Int J Prec Eng Manuf2021; 22: 1–2.
90.
JuYS. Thermal conduction and viscous heating in microscale Couette flows. J Heat Transfer2000; 122: 817–818.
91.
LeeKWNohYJGaoW, et al.Experimental investigation of an air-bearing displacement sensor for on-machine surface form measurement of micro-structures. Int J Prec Eng Manuf2011; 12: 671–678.
92.
TaoFXiaoBQiQ, et al.Digital twin modeling. J Manuf Syst2022; 64: 372–389.
93.
QiQTaoFHuT, et al.Enabling technologies and tools for digital twin. J Manuf Syst2021; 58: 3–21.
94.
BaoJGuoDLiJ,et al.The modelling and operations for the digital twin in the context of manufacturing. Enterp Inf Syst2019; 13: 534–556.
95.
VanDerHornEMahadevanS. Digital twin: generalization, characterization and implementation. Decis Support Syst2021; 145: 113524.
96.
WuLLengJJuB. Digital twins-based smart design and control of ultra-precision machining: a review. Symmetry (Basel)2021; 13: 1717.
97.
ZhangP. Accuracy prediction model of an orifice-compensated aerostatic bearing. Prec Eng2021; 72: 837–846.
98.
LiYZhouKZhangZ. A flow-difference feedback iteration method and its application to high-speed aerostatic journal bearings. Tribol Int2015; 84: 132–141.
99.
CuiHWangYYangH, et al.Numerical analysis and experimental research on the angular stiffness of aerostatic bearings. Tribol Int2018; 120: 166–178.
100.
GaoSChengKDingH. CFD Based investigation on influence of orifice chamber shapes for the design of aerostatic thrust bearings at ultra-high speed spindles. Tribol Int2015; 92: 211–221.
101.
SongLChengKDingH. Analysis of static and dynamic characteristics of spiral-grooved gas journal bearings in high speed.Proc IMechE Part C: J Mech Eng Sci2019; 233: 6774–6792.
102.
WangCChengKRakowskiR. An experimental investigation on ultra-precision instrumented smart aerostatic bearing spindle applied to high speed micro-drilling. J Manuf Process2018; 31: 324–335.
103.
KhaghaniAChengK. Investigation on multi-body dynamics based approach to the toolpath generation for ultraprecision machining of freeform surfaces. Proc IMechE Part B: J Eng Manuf2020; 234: 571–583.
104.
GaoSChengKDingH,et al.Multiphysics-based design and analysis of the high-speed aerostatic spindle with application to micro-milling. Proc Inst Mech Eng Part J: J Eng Tribol2016; 230: 852–871.
105.
SunXChengK. Multiscale simulation of the nanometric cutting process. Int J Adv Manuf Technol2010; 47: 891–901.
106.
Al-BenderF. On the modelling of the dynamic characteristics of aerostatic bearing films: from stability analysis to active compensation.Prec Eng2009; 33: 117–126.
107.
TaoFZhangHLiuA,et al.Digital twin in industry: state-of-the-art. IEEE Trans Ind Inf2018; 15: 2405–2415.
