Observers of management education see a paradox, an expanding activity bombarded with profound complaints from all of the constituencies involved. But this only seems paradoxical to those with a unidimensional notion of managerial knowledge. Following the lead of philosophers such as William James and Polanyi, and experimental psychologists, we argue that managerial knowledge is of several distinct types. We set these out in a 2 X 2 matrix built from the individual-social and the explicit-taken-for-granted dichotomies. Each type of knowledge implies a different kind of managerial activity. The matrix also reveals characteristically different relationships between knowledge and action. Given this variety, we see that the complaints relate to the areas in which management education is weak, while the growth relates to areas in which it is strong. Vygotsky's 'activity theory' adds to our understanding of the dynamics of the managerial learning process and of the interaction between the different types of knowledge. In the final section we explore the implications of this dynamic epistemology for management educators.
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